2013 Subject Index: Pavements

• Nanoscale Evaluation of Effect of RAP on Virgin Asphalt Binder Properties
  Abstract: In this paper, various nano and macro-mechanical techniques were used to study the effect of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) binder on the micro-structure and properties of a virgin asphalt binder and to evaluate the degree of blending that occurs between those binders. To this end, different atomic force microscopy (AFM) experiments (i.e. AFM tapping mode imaging, AFM nano-indentation, AFM force spectroscopy experiments) were conducted on a virgin asphalt binder, recovered RAP binder, and their composite. In addition, the dynamic shear rhoemeter (DSR) tests were conducted on the evaluated binders, and the dynamic modulus tests (E*) were performed on mixtures prepared using those binders to evaluate the degree of RAP blending and compare it with those obtained using the AFM test results. The results of the AFM images indicated that blending between the RAP and virgin binders occurs at the nano/micro-scale level in the composite binder at a fairly uniform manner. Furthermore, the nano-indentation test results indicated that the composite asphalt binder had significantly lower modulus than the RAP binder and closer to the virgin binder; however, the virgin binder modulus was still significantly lower than that of the composite. The force spectroscopy results indicated that the RAP had adverse effects on the adhesion properties of the composite binder. The results of DSR tests showed similar trends to that observed using the AFM nano-indentation results; however, the DSR was found to underestimate the effect of the RAP on the mechanical properties of the composite. Finally, the AFM test results suggested that about 85% of RAP was effective in the composite.
  Authors: Nazzal, Munir D.; Mogawer, Walaa S.; Kaya, Savas; Bennert, Thomas A.
  Authors: Nazzal, Munir D.; Mogawer, Walaa S.; Kaya, Savas; Bennert, Thomas A.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 307
  Paper Number: 13-0153
• Three-dimensional Finite Element Analysis of Hot-Mix Asphalt Overlay Mix Design to Control Reflective Cracking
  Abstract: This study examines the effectiveness of HMA overlay design strategies for the purpose of controlling the development of reflective cracking. A parametric study was conducted using a 3D Finite Element (FE) model of a rigid pavement section including Linear Viscoelastic (LVE) material properties for the Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) overlay and non-uniform tire-pavement contact stresses. Several asphalt mixtures were tested in the surface, intermediate, and leveling course of the HMA overlay. Results obtained show that no benefits can be anticipated by using either Polymer-Modified (PM) or Dense-Graded (DG) mixtures instead of Standard Binder (SB) mixtures in the surface or intermediate course. For the leveling course, the use of a PM asphalt binder was found beneficial in terms of mitigating reflective cracking. As compared to the SB mix, the use of PM asphalt mixture in the leveling course reduced the level of longitudinal tensile stress at the bottom of the HMA overlay above the PCC joint by approximately 30%.
  Authors: Ghauch, Ziad
  Authors: Ghauch, Ziad
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 555
  Paper Number: 13-0223
• Resilient and Permanent Deformation Characteristics of Unbound Pavement Layers Modified by Geogrids
  Abstract: The benefits of geogrids in reducing permanent deformation of flexible pavements are generally recognized and have been shown in numerous laboratory and field studies. On the other hand, although the resilient moduli of unbound pavement materials are important property inputs in the mechanistic-empirical (ME) pavement design process, the impact of geogrids on unbound layers’ resilient behavior remains unclear according to previous studies. The focus of this paper is on resilient behavior of unbound layers and permanent deformation of soft soil subgrade modified by geogrids placed at the base-subgrade interface. Two sets of reduced-scale accelerated pavement tests were conducted on scaled pavement structures built over two types of soft soil subgrade. Each set of accelerated tests consists of four sections, among which three sections were modified with different geogrids and one section left unmodified as a control. Instruments were embedded in the subgrade to measure resilient and permanent deformations of the subgrade. Nondestructive tests using a lightweight deflectometer (LWD) were conducted on pavement layers along with the progression of construction. Surface deflections and subgrade resilient deformation under the impulsive LWD loads were recorded. The test sections were then subjected to repetitive moving wheel loading by means of a one-third-scale model mobile load simulator (MMLS3). Subgrade resilient and permanent deformations were measured at intervals of the wheel load applications. The surface deflection measurements and instrumentation measurements of subgrade resilient deformation under the LWD load indicate that the geogrids did not have an appreciable impact on the resilient behavior of the base layer and subgrade. Subgrade resilient deformations measured along with the repetitive wheel loads also suggest that the effects of the geogrids on the resilient responses of the subgrade were not evident. However, through the two sets of accelerated tests, two of the geogrids consistently exhibited benefits in reducing the permanent deformation in the subgrade.
  Authors: Tang, Xiaochao; Stoffels, Shelley M.; Palomino, Angelica M.
  Authors: Tang, Xiaochao; Stoffels, Shelley M.; Palomino, Angelica M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 480
  Paper Number: 13-0479
• Reinforcement Tensile Behavior Under Cyclic Moving Wheel Loads
  Abstract: Numerous studies have revealed that the use of geogrids in a flexible pavement can lead to an improvement in the performance of a pavement structure, especially its resistance to permanent deformation. One of the questions that remains regarding the effectiveness of the geogrid in reinforcing the pavement is how much the geogrid is engaged and mobilized throughout its service. This paper presents results of a laboratory study on various geogrid products embedded in flexible pavement sections built on soft soil subgrade. The laboratory-scale flexible pavement sections were subjected to cyclic unidirectional moving wheel loads using reduced-scale accelerated pavement testing (APT). During the accelerated pavement testing, strains developed in the geogrids were measured at intervals of loading applications by strain gages installed in pairs on the upper and lower surfaces of the geogrid ribs. Subgrade permanent deformation was also measured at the same intervals of loading applications. The tensile behavior of the various geogrids embedded in pavements were compared and examined. Based on the measurements of geogrid strains throughout the construction process, it was found that the pavement construction resulted in a considerable prestressing effect on the geogrids. Measurements from the individual strain gages in pairs show that the strain gages installed on the upper surfaces of the geogrid ribs were in compression while the gages on the lower surfaces were in tension, indicating a significant effect of ribs¡¯ flexural deflection on the tensile strain measurements from the strain gages. Furthermore, it was observed that geogrid ribs in the longitudinal direction of the traffic loading were not mobilized while considerable strains were developed in geogrid ribs in the direction transverse to the traffic loading. A clear correlation was found between the reinforcing forces developed in the geogrids and the performance of the reinforced subgrade in terms of resisting permanent deformation.
  Authors: Tang, Xiaochao; Palomino, Angelica M.; Stoffels, Shelley M.
  Authors: Tang, Xiaochao; Palomino, Angelica M.; Stoffels, Shelley M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 623
  Paper Number: 13-0481
• Integrating Rolling-Wheel Deflectometer Measurements into Pavement Management Systems Using Multivariate Statistical Methods and Fuzzy Logic
  Abstract: The Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (LADOTD), conducted a research project on approximately 1400 miles of asphaltic concrete roadways with the Rolling Wheel Deflectometer (RWD). The major outcomes of the study were to assess the effectiveness of the RWD as a structural assessment tool on Louisiana Highways and to introduce the RWD index (RI).The purpose of this paper was to define RI ranges for the treatment selections or pavement structural conditions linked to current LADOTD PMS methods using multivariate (Factor Analysis), descriptive (Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)) statistical methods, and fuzzy logic-functions.The Factor Analysis revealed that RI could be generally used as a single index to assess the pavement structural conditions.The ANOVA analysis revealed that RI could not be used to establish the four treatment methods typically used by LADOTD. However, the ANOVA analysis did reveal that the RI could be used to infer whether a pavement was structurally-sound or deficient. If discovered to be structurally- deficient, additional structural evaluation would be required such as with an FWD.Fuzzy logic/set theory was utilized to establish fuzzy functions for the structurally-sound and structurally-deficient pavement conditions along with RI threshold ranges per thickness group. Equations were derived to produce RI threshold values for pavement thicknesses less than 12 in. The equations may be used for pavements thicker than 12 in., but with caution. For large segments of roadways, algorithms were provided to assess whether pavements were structurally- sound or structurally-deficient based on RI.
  Authors: Gaspard, Kevin; Zhang, Zhongjie; Elseifi, Mostafa A.
  Authors: Gaspard, Kevin; Zhang, Zhongjie; Elseifi, Mostafa A.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 809
  Paper Number: 13-0544
• Pavement Management: Capturing Surface Treatment Effectiveness
  Abstract: Acquiring detailed knowledge of surface treatments effectiveness is required to improve performance-based decisions for allocating resources to preserve and maintain pavements on any road network. Measurement of treatment effectiveness is a complex task that requires historical records of treatments with observations of before and after performance trends. Lack of data is often an obstacle that impedes development and incorporation of surface maintenance treatments into pavement management. This paper analyzes the effect of surface treatments on asphalt paved arterial roads for several control sections. The method uses a Transition Probability Matrix to capture main effects mapping mean trends of surface improvement and pavement structure decay. It was found that surface treatments have an immediate effect reducing the rate of loss of structural capacity. Pavements with IRI smaller than 1.4 m/km did not seem to benefit from surface treatments. Those with IRI higher than 1.66 m/km gained from 6 to 8 years of additional life. Reset value for surface treatments fall between 1.18 and 1.29 m/km. This paper aims to serve to practitioners seeking to capture and incorporate effectiveness of surface treatments (i.e., crack-sealing) into Pavement Management.
  Authors: Amador-Jimenez, Luis; Amin, MD Shohel Reza
  Authors: Amador-Jimenez, Luis; Amin, MD Shohel Reza
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 662
  Paper Number: 13-0568
• Introducing Otta Seals for Low-Volume Roads in Tonga
  Abstract: The Kingdom of Tonga’s road network, comprising approximately 640km of public roads, has had minimal road maintenance over the past decade. As a result, the road network is rapidly deteriorating. The World Bank funded Transport Sector Consolidation Project is supporting the Government of Tonga in implementing a road maintenance program to prolong the serviceability of the road network. However, due to the limited capacity of the local contracting industry, and a severe lack of quality road surfacing aggregate, traditional surfacing methods for periodic maintenance and road upgrading are not suitable. Innovative surfacing technologies, such as Otta Seals, were adopted to overcome the local limitations. The main objective of this paper is to document the introduction of Otta Seals to Tonga and the experience to date. It will also briefly capture the applications, benefits and limitations of Otta Seals, and the reasons why they have been considered for Tonga. The paper provides a brief review of the local contracting industry and the availability of locally sourced aggregate in Tonga, and the effects that these have on the choice of pavement surfacing alternatives. The first trial sections were awarded to a local contractor in January 2012, and the works are planned to start after the rainy season in July 2012. The process of introducing the new technology has to date been successful and progress of this project is being monitored by a number of other South Pacific countries that are faced with the similar constraints.
  Authors: Wilkinson, Scott J; Visser, Alex T.; Henning, Theuns F. P.; Bennett, Christopher R.; Faiz, Asif
  Authors: Wilkinson, Scott J; Visser, Alex T.; Henning, Theuns F. P.; Bennett, Christopher R.; Faiz, Asif
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Design; Pavements
  Session: 245
  Paper Number: 13-0673
• Development of Full-Scale Reflective Cracking Test at the FAA NAPTF
  Abstract: Asphalt concrete (AC) overlays must be designed and constructed to withstand reflective cracking. Unfortunately, the current Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) overlay design procedure (Advisory Circular 150/5320-6E) does not address this common form of premature failure. This paper presents a research project that was aimed at studying one of the general accepted causes of reflection cracks - horizontal movements concentrated at joints in the existing portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement. A prototype, Temperature Effect Simulation System (TESS) was developed at the FAA National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF) such that the joint opening and closing due to temperature changes can be simulated mechanically. A test pavement representing typical airport overlay structure was constructed to support full-scale tests. Both theoretical and experimental studies were performed to determine key test parameters, critical pavement temperature, joint opening, loading rate, and AC-PCC interface bonding condition. Preliminary full-scale tests demonstrated that the TESS could not only generate forces that create precise and repeatable joint openings but also effectively control the pavement temperature. Instrumentation data revealed that once bottom-up reflection cracks initiated, crack development can quickly progress. When the crack length reached a certain level, the crack propagation rate would slow considerably. Information and data presented in this paper are of immediate assistance to the General Aviation Airports carrying small and light aircraft and experiencing significant temperature variations.
  Authors: Yin, Hao; Barbagallo, Donald
  Authors: Yin, Hao; Barbagallo, Donald
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 579
  Paper Number: 13-0695
• Laboratory Evaluation and Field Investigation of Asphalt Pavement Crack Seal Band
  Abstract: Crack sealing and filling is one of the most successful treatments for asphalt pavement preventive maintenance. The traditional crack seal materials, such as bituminous sealant or silicone sealant, unfortunately, cannot meet the requirements for open to traffic rapidly because of high volume traffic in China. Thus, a new seal material called seal band began to be applied to crack filling recently. Three test methods include penetration cone, softening point and modified bond were proposed to evaluate seal band. Then, installation configuration and field performance of seal band were investigated. The field studies indicate the treatment does not require melters, pumps or routing cracks for installation, applying seal band is as simple as blowing the pavement making sure the surface is clean and dry, unrolling and applying it to the surface. Failure investigation shows seal band can fail in three modes, included cohesion failure, adhesion failure and pullout. The investigation also discovers seal band shows better field performance than silicone sealant and hot-applied sealant. Properly installed, seal band prevents water intrusion and the deterioration it causes to the pavement.
  Authors: Li, Feng; Shi, Xiaopei; Zeng, Wei; Xu, Jian
  Authors: Li, Feng; Shi, Xiaopei; Zeng, Wei; Xu, Jian
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 698
  Paper Number: 13-0396
• Prediction of Asphalt Pavement Surface Characteristics Using Torque Measurements
  Abstract: Continuous increase in traffic volume in the recent years has resulted in greater surface friction loss of asphalt pavements. While the literature presents several ways of aggregate and asphalt mix screening to ensure that surface characteristics are at an acceptable level of friction to control skid-related accidents, the recommended polishing tests using different accelerated polishing devices are time consuming and labor intensive. Therefore, it is imperative that existing polishing devices be improved to significantly shorten the test duration to a level desired by the industry as well as state and federal agencies. This paper aims at addressing this improvement that uses power unit (or motor) to generate energy enough to rotate the polishing disk at constant rotational speed while being pressed against the specimen surface then read the power needed from the display screen for the following steps.Multiple verification techniques including comparison studies and statistical analyses were used to examine the validity of this improvement. It was found that data collected by the power unit was repeatable and able to precisely detect surface deterioration history for different asphalt mixes with different polish susceptibility in a manner similar to conventional friction and texture measuring devices. Hence, aggregates and mixes were classified based on their surface frictional properties. Additionally, results from this study correlated well with results from other studies using conventional methods. Most importantly, it was found to be possible to cut the polishing test time dramatically by using torque values in lieu of conventional surface quantification methods.
  Authors: Khasawneh, Mohammad Ali; Liang, Robert
  Authors: Khasawneh, Mohammad Ali; Liang, Robert
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 517
  Paper Number: 13-0473
• Determining Impact of Degree of Blending Between Virgin and Reclaimed Asphalt Binder on Predicted Pavement Performance Using Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide
  Abstract: Past studies have indicated binder from reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregates do not fully blend within the hot mix asphalt (HMA), resulting in a partial degree of blending (DOB). The degree of blending is defined as the percentage of RAP binder that is effectively mobilized within the mix. This study will focus on determining the impact of DOB on predicted pavement performance using MEPDG level I analysis of 25% RAP mixes with three RAP sources. Dynamic complex modulus tests were conducted on each RAP source with two conditions: full blending and a calculated “Actual” DOB. Most state agencies assume full blending, which is an assumption that may lead to under asphalting or a relatively stiffer mix. However, it is unclear how this will affect the predicted pavement performance. For the full blending samples, it was assumed that all of the RAP binder was mobilized in the mix, and the virgin binder was offset accordingly. The “Actual” DOB samples were mixed after a DOB was determined. MEPDG level I analysis was conducted using typical structures, climate, and traffic conditions for the state of New Jersey. Also rutting and fatigue cracking performance between the two DOBs were compared for each of the RAP sources. The results indicate DOB has a negligible effect on fatigue and rutting performance for the three RAP sources tested, all of which had high actual DOB’s, greater than 85%. Therefore, for RAP with such high DOB values, full blending assumption would be cost effective and would not compromise the pavement performance. However, RAP variability will need to be controlled to ensure quality performance.
  Authors: Coffey, Sean; DuBois, Eric; Mehta, Yusuf A.; Purdy, Caitlin
  Authors: Coffey, Sean; DuBois, Eric; Mehta, Yusuf A.; Purdy, Caitlin
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 377
  Paper Number: 13-0571
• Analysis of Impacts of Specimen Type on Dynamic Modulus and Predicted Pavement Performance
  Abstract: This study focused on determining the impacts of specimen type on dynamic modulus and flexible pavement predicted performance. Mixtures that were evaluated included both commonly-used dense-graded asphalt and those modified with emerging technologies. Dynamic modulus (|E*|) data was measured with two different test methods (IDT and Uniaxial Compression) and then analyzed using prediction tools (Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) software, Quality Related Specification Software (QRSS), and the Asphalt Mixture Performance Tester (AMPT) Quality Assurance (QA) Program). Pavement distresses that were predicted included rutting in the surface layer as well as fatigue cracking. Performance predictions based on |E*| data from laboratory reheated and compacted specimens were equivalent to those resulting from the plant-compacted and field-compacted specimens. The results suggested that it may not be necessary to require plant-compacted or field-compacted asphalt specimens. A comparison of the different analysis tools also suggested that the MEPDG can be used effectively with Level 2 inputs, in lieu of requiring Level 1 inputs, to predict the service life of flexible pavements. By performing a parametric analysis, it was established that the MEPDG-predicted distresses were reasonable and the MEPDG may prove an effective substitute for the QRSS software. The data supported that transportation agencies can choose their preferred test method and specimen type and expect similar performance based on the pavement distresses predicted. It was recommended that agencies should select their method based upon the type of pavement distress most likely to occur at the design location.
  Authors: Guercio, Maria Chiara; McCarthy, Leslie Ann; Bennert, Thomas A.; DeJarnette, Van
  Authors: Guercio, Maria Chiara; McCarthy, Leslie Ann; Bennert, Thomas A.; DeJarnette, Van
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 239
  Paper Number: 13-0724
• Sustainable Pavement Maintenance and Preservation Practices: Review of Current Practice
  Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to report on the state-of-the-practice in sustainable pavement maintenance and preservation. This paper is concerned and directed at understanding how pavement maintenance and preservation practices minimize environmental impacts. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) differentiates between pavement preservation and pavement maintenance and uses this to allocate federal funds accordingly. While Canadian agencies recognize and practice the concepts of pavement preservation, there is no regulatory differentiation between it and maintenance as compared to the United States (U.S). Pavement preservation promotes environmental sustainability by conserving energy, virgin materials, and reducing greehouse gases by keeping good roads good. Therefore, the foundation of a sustainable pavement maintenance program is to commit personnel and resources to pavement preservation. Currently, public agencies in the U.S. and Canada have done very little to extend the knowledge gained from research and practice in sustainable highway project delivery beyond construction completion and into the pavement preservation and maintenance phase of the road's life cycle. Thus, there are many opportunities for future research and enormous potential for agencies to accrue benefits in this area of practice. Treatments identified in this paper are primarily related to preservation and maintenance. However, these are not exclusive to preservation and maintenance and can be used in pavement rehabiliation.
  Authors: Tighe, Susan Louise; Gransberg, Douglas D.
  Authors: Tighe, Susan Louise; Gransberg, Douglas D.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 212
  Paper Number: 13-0728
• Impact of Long and Heavy Vehicles on Pavement Damage
  Abstract: In the present paper the effect of vehicle configuration and traffic characteristics on the damage induced in pavements by traffic is investigated numerically. A three dimensional time-dependent pavement-vehicle interaction analysis is performed in order to study the impact of the parameters mentioned above on the mechanical response of flexible pavements. The analysis is based on a fast and robust computational procedure, developed by the authors. The numerical algorithm utilizes the three-dimensional finite element solution of the reduced problem of one tyre pavement interface loaded with tyre pressure. Afterwards, a superposition procedure based on fast Fourier transform techniques is applied to find the pavement response to moving loads. The method is general and capable of capturing the stress-strain response to any arbitrary loading history.One particular area of study with employing the current procedure is the analysis of long and heavy vehicle impact on pavement damage. Two major modes of distress, i.e. cracking and rutting have been discussed for 6 different truck types with 2 speeds. It is shown that an accurate numerical model provides a more accurate explanation of different distress modes. Moreover the conventional analysis and design methods with layered linear elastic behaviour assumption for asphalt layer are unable to capture several important aspects of pavement response.
  Authors: Khavassefat, Parisa; Jelagin, Denis; Birgisson, Bjorn
  Authors: Khavassefat, Parisa; Jelagin, Denis; Birgisson, Bjorn
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 554
  Paper Number: 13-0756
• First Observation of Blending-Zone Morphology at Interface of Reclaimed Asphalt Binder and Virgin Bitumen
  Abstract: The challenge in designing recycled asphalt mixtures with a high amount of RAP is to estimate the blending degree between RAP binder and the added virgin bitumen. The extent of blending is crucial in this case as asphalt concrete response is influenced by the final binder properties. This paper focuses on the evaluation of interaction and extent of blending between RAP-binder and virgin bitumen by studying the microstructures of the ‘blending zone’ with atomic force microscopy (AFM). AFM is used to probe the change of microstructural properties from a RAP-binder and virgin bitumen to the blending zone of these two. Averaged microstructural properties have been observed in thin film blends of RAP-binder and pure bitumen. The morphology of the blending zone (spatial extent of about 50 µm) exhibits domains of a wide range of microstructure sizes from 160 nm to 2.07 µm and can be considered to be a completely blended ‘new material’ which has been observed directly for the first time. The fully blended binder properties are found to be in between those of the two individual binders, as could be inferred from the averaged microstructural properties imaged by AFM. This is also consistent with the results of mechanical tests (dynamic shear rheometer) on the same materials. Finally a design formula is proposed that relates the blending zone dimension to temperature and mixing time. This relation would bring the results of this study from small length scales up to the engineering level.
  Authors: Nahar, Sayeda Nowrozon; Mohajeri, Mohamad; Schmets, Alexander J. M.; Scarpas, Athanasios; van de Ven, Martin F. C.; Schitter, Georg
  Authors: Nahar, Sayeda Nowrozon; Mohajeri, Mohamad; Schmets, Alexander J. M.; Scarpas, Athanasios; van de Ven, Martin F. C.; Schitter, Georg
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 307
  Paper Number: 13-0763
• Accelerated Method to Evaluate Performance of Slag Used as Unbound Material in Road Bases
  Abstract: Because of environmental reasons, secondary materials will be and are being used on a large scale in road construction. Using these materials however is becoming a challenge because little information is available about their future behaviors and their performance is therefore difficult to estimate. In this study, aging is proposed as a means of exploring the long-term mechanical and physical performance of secondary materials. A slag mixture which is routinely used in the Netherlands in road (sub-)bases was selected as a reference material. The A32 motorway in the Netherlands was used as a source of field aged granulated Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) materials. The base layer of this motorway suddenly experienced serious failure after 20 years. In order to prevent similar problems to occur an aging method is suggested to detect at an early stage potential poor material performance. Three aging approaches including freeze-thaw (FT) action, steam aging and normal aging were chosen and applied to fresh and the field aged materials. These treatments have affected material characteristics. The results show that there is a linkage between secondary material performance and temperature, moisture and time.Response behavior for the steam aged laboratory samples and the A32 base material are similar, suggesting that the steam aging method did a reasonable job of producing a material of similar distress. The microstructural analysis suggests that it is possible to trace the chemical components which may attribute to the failure process of slag materials.
  Authors: Akbarnejad, Sadegh; Houben, Lambert; Molenaar, André
  Authors: Akbarnejad, Sadegh; Houben, Lambert; Molenaar, André
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 293
  Paper Number: 13-0804
• Application of Steam Aging Method for Evaluation of Slag System as a Granular Material
  Abstract: Long term performance of secondary materials is becoming a challenging aspect in road construction since due to their benefits they are being used on a large scale, but on the other hand their future behavior is difficult to estimate. Therefore, there is need for an accelerated test protocol that allows to estimate the potential loss of strength of such materials as well as their potential volumetric change. A research program was therefore carried out to investigate the effects of steam aging on the performance of slag mixtures.Different slag mixtures which are routinely used in the Netherlands in road (sub-)bases were selected. A motorway in the Netherlands was used as a source of field aged materials. The base layer of this motorway experienced serious failures. In order to prevent similar problems a steam aging method was suggested to detect at an early stage material with potential poor performance.The results showed that certain mixtures may expand during steam aging and the compressive strength of these mixtures increased during 7 days steam aging, afterwards it decreased. The microprobe technique was adopted to measure the corresponding chemical composition and monitor the micro-structural changes.It was found that the reactivity of slag materials is influenced by the chemical composition and the aging time. The measured data have indicated a relationship between some major chemical compositions and mechanical properties of the slags. Empirical equations were developed to estimate the influence of chemical composition on the compressive strength and volume expansion.
  Authors: Akbarnejad, Sadegh; Houben, Lambert; Molenaar, André
  Authors: Akbarnejad, Sadegh; Houben, Lambert; Molenaar, André
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 293
  Paper Number: 13-0808
• Survival Analysis of Thin Overlay and Chip Seal Treatments Using Long-Term Pavement Performance Data
  Abstract: Pavement preservation treatments are widely used to retard future deterioration, and maintain and improve the functional condition of the system, without substantially increasing pavement structural capacity. This paper provides an empirical assessment of the longevity of two commonly used preservation treatments for hot-mix asphalt (HMA) pavements: thin overlay (0.5 in. to 2 in. in thickness) and chip seal. The data used in this study were extracted from the Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) database and covered 40 States and eight Canadian Provinces. Failure curves (also called survival curves) and mathematical models were developed for these treatment types to estimate their life expectancies and probability of failure at any given age or carried cumulative traffic loading. To account for the effect of climate on treatment performance, separate failure curves were developed for four climatic zones ? dry freeze, dry non-freeze, wet freeze, and wet non-freeze. The median life expectancy is 7 to 9.5 years for thin overlays and 3.5 to 10 years for chip seals, depending on which climatic zone the treatment is located in. In terms of traffic loading, the median life expectancy is 1,500 to 8,000 cumulative KESALs for thin overlays and 500 to 2,000 cumulative KESALs for chip seals, depending on the climatic zone of the treatment [1 KESALs = 1,000 equivalent single-axle load (ESAL)]. The wide range in treatment life expectancy among the four climatic zones signifies the effect of climate on the performance of thin overlays and chip seals.
  Authors: Liu, Litao; Gharaibeh, Nasir G.
  Authors: Liu, Litao; Gharaibeh, Nasir G.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 212
  Paper Number: 13-0826
• Characterization of Moisture-Dependent Changes in Stiffness of Unbound Aggregate Base Materials in Florida
  Abstract: The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guidelines (MEPDG) recommend use of material modulus in lieu of structural number for pavement base layer thickness design. Modulus is nonlinear with respect to effective confinement stress, loading strain, and moisture (suction), and modulus nonlinearity should be considered for an efficient base layer design and analysis. Fixed-free resonant column tests were conducted on two base materials used in the State of Florida to characterize shear modulus (G) nonlinearity in the strain range of 10-5% to 10-1%, including small-level strains, under different loading confinements and moisture contents. The suction effect on nonlinear modulus due to drying was evaluated, and it was found that unsaturated modulus is linear at strains lower than 10-5% and nonlinear thereafter. Compared to dry materials, the presence of moisture in unsaturated material makes it more nonlinear with respect to strain. The suction effect increases G in the strain range of 10-5% to 10-1%, with very significant increases at strain levels below 10-3%. Empirical equations were developed to calculate very small-strain modulus (Gmax) of dry material. A procedure to calculate an approximate G value at known moisture content, confinement, and strain magnitude was developed.
  Authors: Ayithi, Aditya; Hiltunen, Dennis R.
  Authors: Ayithi, Aditya; Hiltunen, Dennis R.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 205
  Paper Number: 13-0829
• Precision of High-Speed Inertial Profilers for Asphalt Pavement Smoothness Measurements
  Abstract: The Florida Department of Transportation conducted a study to assess the precision and accuracy of its High-Speed Inertial Profilers (HSIPs) used for evaluating the smoothness of asphalt pavements. Eight HSIPs and six asphalt test sections including three dense-graded and three open-graded were included in the study. Profiler agreement in terms of repeatability and reproducibility was rated using the International Roughness Index (IRI). Profiler agreement in terms of repeatability, reproducibility, and accuracy was also assessed using the profile cross-correlation method. A SurPRO 3500 was used as a reference device for the HSIPs accuracy evaluation. A laser tracking device was evaluated as a possible operational improvement technique. The maximum IRI variability at a 95% confidence level within a single HSIP was less than 3.5 in/mi, and 2.0 in/mi for open graded and dense-graded pavements, respectively. The maximum IRI variability at a 95% confidence level between any two HSIPs was less than 5.8 in/mi and 3.8 in/mi for open graded and dense-graded pavements, respectively. The HSIPs repeated and reproduced the IRI measurements well for all test sections and surfaces. The HSIPs demonstrated the highest profile repeatability, reproducibility, and accuracy on the dense-graded medium-smooth surface and the lowest results on the open-graded medium-smooth surface. HSIPs repeatability improved by 8% on the average when using a laser tracking device. The results also indicate that current and proposed repeatability and accuracy criteria could not be met on most pavements surfaces tested.
  Authors: Mraz, Alexander; Nazef, Abdenour; Lee, Hyung Suk; Holzschuher, Charles R.; Choubane, Bouzid
  Authors: Mraz, Alexander; Nazef, Abdenour; Lee, Hyung Suk; Holzschuher, Charles R.; Choubane, Bouzid
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 552
  Paper Number: 13-0859
• Durability Quantification for TiO2 Photocatalytic Concrete and Asphalt Pavements
  Abstract: The use of nano sized titanium dioxide in photocatalytic pavements to combat air pollution has received considerable attention in recent years. Past research focused on the effects of environmental and operational parameters on photocatalytic efficiency and its performance under laboratory and field conditions. Few studies have attempted to quantify the durability of the technology integrated with in-service photocatalytic pavements. This study developed and implemented a new photocatalytic quantification method used to quantify the short term durability of a TiO2 spray application on two pavement surfaces: concrete and asphalt. This was accomplished through developing a nitrate extraction method that could be used on in-service pavements without requiring core extraction. Results of the proposed method were compared to results obtained from the Japanese Industrial Standards: JIS R 1701-1. The experimental program included testing photocatalytic samples in the laboratory for NOx reduction and nitrate accumulation based on JIS R 1701-1. Results were compared to the nitrate accumulation using the proposed method and a correction factor was developed. The developed method was then used to quantify the durability of a TiO2 treated photocatalytic pavement over a five-month monitoring period under field conditions. Results showed that the durability of TiO2 in concrete and asphalt pavements is predicted to be 10 and 14 months, respectively.
  Authors: Osborn, David; Hassan, Marwa M.; Asadi, Somayeh; White, John R
  Authors: Osborn, David; Hassan, Marwa M.; Asadi, Somayeh; White, John R
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 292
  Paper Number: 13-0901
• Viscoelastic-Viscoplastic Characterization of Unbound Granular Materials
  Abstract: The mechanical behavior of unbound granular materials had proven to be extremely challenging. In the pavement field, as well as in other geotechnical disciplines, these materials are usually treated as elastic or elasto-plastic. The objective of this work is to explore the applicability and potential for a viscoelastic-viscoplastic constitutive theory to characterize unbound granular materials. Such a theory contains as special cases the commonly applied behavior types, it is capable of modeling time-dependence, and can be further compounded to simulate sophisticated effects such as: anisotropy, damage, stiffening in compression, thermal sensitivity, and aging. Laboratory investigation is presented, in which a compacted granular specimen was exposed to a sequence of unidirectional creep and recovery cycles while under constant confinement conditions. Such a testing protocol offers an almost ‘automatic’ separation of the behavior into resilient (viscoelastic) and permanent (viscoplastic) components. Related experimental issues and data preprocessing elements are described in detail. From the measurements it was observed that the material creeps under load and exhibits partial, time-dependent recovery upon unloading. A one-dimensional viscoelastic-viscoplastic constitutive theory was applied as a first attempt to reproduce this behavior. The model was able to simulate very well the observed data trends and magnitudes, and hence deemed potentially generalizable to more advanced conditions.
  Authors: Levenberg, Eyal
  Authors: Levenberg, Eyal
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 293
  Paper Number: 13-0903
• Setting Up Otta Seal Trials for the South Pacific Islands
  Abstract: This paper presents the supporting monitoring programme for several Otta Seal Trials in the South Pacific region. This surfacing technology has been considered for this region given the scarcity of suitable aggregates for traditional surfacing such as thin chip seals. In order for this technology to be accepted within the region, Otta Seal Trials were set up in order to a) introduce the technology to the region and b) to demonstrate the practicality and appropriateness of this technology within the geology, environment and traffic loading.A monitoring guideline was developed that specifies the establishment of the test section, assessment procedures and the data that are collected on a regular basis. The philosophy for these requirements was to developed procedures that required minimal training of assessors while at the same time would yield useful data that could be utilized for statistical analysis of the surface performance.The setting up of the Otta Seal Trials for the South Pacific Islands has confirmed a number of recommendations related to road performance experiments including:•Clear definition of the objectives for the trials is important as it has a direct influence on the scale and assessment/monitoring philosophy for the trial;•Only collect the data items needed to an accuracy and sophistication required to provide useful data for the analyses considered to answer the objectives/questions;•Trials should be designed within context of available resources for conducting the monitoring.
  Authors: Henning, Theuns F. P.; Visser, Alex T.
  Authors: Henning, Theuns F. P.; Visser, Alex T.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Design; Pavements
  Session: 245
  Paper Number: 13-0911
• Using Artificial Intelligence Models to Evaluate Field Performance of Photocatalytic Asphalt Pavement for Ambient Air Purification
  Abstract: In recent years, the application of titanium dioxide (TiO2) as a photocatalyst in asphalt pavement has received considerable attention due to its ability to purify ambient air from traffic-emitted pollutants via photocatalytic processes. The objective of this study was to utilize Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Neuro-Fuzzy (NF) models to predict NOx concentration in the air as a function of traffic count (Tr) and climatic conditions including humidity (H), temperature (T), solar radiation (S), and wind speed (W) before and after the application of TiO2 on the pavement surface. A field study was conducted where a water-soluble nano TiO2 solution was sprayed on a 0.2 mile of asphalt pavement in Baton Rouge, LA. Two Artificial Intelligence (AI) models were developed to predict NOx concentrations before and after TiO2 application. Results showed that the NF model provided a better fitting to NOx measurements than the ANN model in the training, validation, and test steps. Results of a parametric study showed that traffic level, relative humidity, and solar radiation had the most effects on photocatalytic efficiency. In addition, the increase in wind speed and relative humidity negatively affected the effectiveness of NOx reduction efficiency. However, the increase in UV light intensity improved NOx removal efficiency of the surface coating.
  Authors: Asadi, Somayeh; Hassan, Marwa M.; Nadiri, Ataallah; Mohammad, Louay N.
  Authors: Asadi, Somayeh; Hassan, Marwa M.; Nadiri, Ataallah; Mohammad, Louay N.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 292
  Paper Number: 13-0918
• Hot In-Place Recycling of Open-Graded Friction Course
  Abstract: ABSTRACTOpen graded friction course (OGFC) is widely used in Florida and many southern states as a final friction surface in high speed roads. FDOT friction policy requires the use of OGFC on multilane highway facilities with design speeds greater than 50 miles per hour. OGFC reduces the possibility of hydroplaning and water splash during rain, thereby reducing crashes. About half the Florida State Highway System is surfaced with OGFC, amounting to about 22,000 lane miles of roads.The use of FC-5, the current OGFC mix type in Florida, started in 2000. Some roads with FC-5 have reached the end of their useful life and have been milled and resurfaced. Given the high cost of FC-5 mix, it made economic sense to try to reuse the prime aggregate and high quality material incorporated in OGFC using the hot in-place recycling (HIR) process. The HIR process heats, hot-mills the surface pavement layer, applies a rejuvenating agent, mixes and then places the material in one pass. The process uses 100% of the existing road material and can produce significant cost and environmental savings (1).This paper reports on three attempts to hot in-place recycle OGFC in Florida. One was to hot in-place recycle an FC-5 mix as part of a hot in-place recycling project in Pasco County, Florida (SR-54) in 2012. The second is laboratory study of recycling FC-5 mix based on samples taken at SR-60 in Polk County, Florida in 2011. The third references SR-471 case study conducted by FDOT in 2002 in which an OGFC (type FC-2) was hot in-place recycled, lasted 10 years to date and still remains in service.The three referenced projects have shown that HIR of OGFC can be done successfully and should be considered as a cost effective rehabilitation option in the future. FC-5 is 0.75 inch thick. The recycling thickness for successful HIR is 1.0 to 2.5 inches. Thus, recycling FC-5 requires blending it with the dense-graded mix beneath it. The blending ratio of the two mixes depends on the thickness of each layer. The gradation of the recycled mix was dense graded. The blending ratio can be varied by changing the recycling depth and can produce either coarse or fine mix. While the recycled mix is not open- graded and does not meet FDOT’s requirement, it provides an economical option to milling and resurfacing OGFC. That option is to recycle the old OGFC into the structural layer and resurface with a new OGFC. Current resurfacing practice entails milling the FC-5 and a portion of the structural layer underneath it, replacing the structural layer then replacing the FC-5 course. FC-5 cannot be overlaid and must be removed before overlay. The OGFC can be in-place recycled and mixed with the structural layer underneath, and then a new friction course can be placed over the recycled mix. This can save money as it eliminates the need to mill and replace the top structural layer under the FC-5. Raising the road grade by 0.75 inch, the thickness of the new FC-5 layer, while increasing the section’s structural number, remains an issue in this approach. This may be acceptable if there are no limitations on raising the road elevation in the selected project.Among the interesting findings is the increased amount of fines in the mix compared to construction gradation. Over time, the voids in the mix get filled with dirt and dust. Water flow brings fines into the mix and as the water evaporates, it leaves the fines in the voids, reducing the drainage capacity and resulting in a finer mix.
  Authors: Ali, Hesham A.; Sayed, Sayed M.
  Authors: Ali, Hesham A.; Sayed, Sayed M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 555
  Paper Number: 13-0924
• Benefits Achieved from Florida's Accelerated Pavement Testing Program
  Abstract: The need for faster and more practical evaluation methods under closely simulated in-service conditions prompted the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) to initiate an accelerated pavement testing (APT) program in 2000. APT allows monitoring of a pavement system’s performance and response to accumulation of damage within a much shorter time period, typically within weeks instead of years. The primary objective of FDOT’s APT program is to continuously improve the performance of Florida’s pavements. As such, implementation and technology transfer of research findings are of primary importance. The APT program has become a critical component of FDOT’s pavement research program. The success of the program can be attributed to the careful selection of research projects that address vital issues and prolong the life of Florida’s roadways. Engineers have successfully used the APT program to gain insight into new pavement technology and design methods that laboratory testing alone could not provide. Most important is the impact the APT program has had on pavement construction and design practices. APT research has led to the revision of FDOT’s Flexible Pavement Design Manual and construction specifications and has provided critical information to policy makers. While specific tangible benefits cannot be always directly determined for each project, it is clear that significant savings can be directly attributed to the implementation of APT research. For example, it is estimated that over $4 million is saved each year as a result of APT research and implementation of polymer modified asphalt binders and fine-graded asphalt mixtures.
  Authors: Greene, James; Choubane, Bouzid; Jackson, N. Mike
  Authors: Greene, James; Choubane, Bouzid; Jackson, N. Mike
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 737
  Paper Number: 13-0961
• Bayesian Approach to Updating Markov-Based Pavement Performance Prediction Models
  Abstract: The Markov decision process is one of the most common probabilistic prediction models used in infrastructure management. Where insufficient data exists, expert knowledge is commonly used to derive a Markovian transition probability matrix (TPM). Eventually, every pavement management system will progress to a level where inspection measurements from the network are organized into a database to be used for performance prediction. The best way to use this body of data to improve the initially-developed TPM is to combine prior expert knowledge with new observations. This paper proposes a method to periodically update Markovian transition probabilities as new inspection data becomes available. Bayesian inference is used to accommodate uncertainty in the expert-derived initial probabilities and measurement errors from inspection of the network. A data set of asphalt concrete pavement observations from the MnROAD test facility is used to illustrate the proposed method.
  Authors: Tabatabaee, Nader; Ziyadi, Mojtaba
  Authors: Tabatabaee, Nader; Ziyadi, Mojtaba
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-0993
• Performance Prediction Models for Cracked, Seated, and Overlaid Concrete Pavements in California
  Abstract: Crack, seat, and overlay (CS&O) is a rehabilitation technique that has been used on Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP) in California. Although widely used, only a few studies have attempted to develop performance prediction models for pavements rehabilitated employing this technique. The purpose of this study was to evaluate CS&O performance in terms of surface roughness and transverse reflection cracking. Performance data for CS&O sections in three different geographic regions in California were used to develop regression performance models. These models can be incorporated into the Caltrans Pavement Management System (PMS) to predict future performance, assist in life-cycle cost analysis, and optimize the allocation of resources. The results of a sensitivity-analysis suggest that sections age is the most significant factor affecting the deterioration of CS&O pavements followed by the annual traffic level, in terms of ESAL, and layer thickness ratio. Sections age variable would implicitly include the impact of environmental loading cycles. Other factors related to subgrade conditions, temperature variations, and construction variability could not be investigated since data were not available. However, their impacts are inherent in the models.
  Authors: Rahim, Ashraf M.; Fiegel, Gregg L.; Holland, T. Joseph; Lim, Seungwook
  Authors: Rahim, Ashraf M.; Fiegel, Gregg L.; Holland, T. Joseph; Lim, Seungwook
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 579
  Paper Number: 13-0996
• Measurement of Pavement Solar Reflectivity and Effect on Thermal Performance
  Abstract: Solar reflectivity (or albedo) plays an important role in the thermal behavior of pavements and other ground surfaces, and their resultant impacts on humans and the environment. This study developed a new albedo measurement system with a dual-pyranometer and automatic data acquisition system, and used it to conduct field measurements of solar reflectivity on different pavement materials and for long-term monitoring of albedo. The albedo values were obtained for commonly used land cover materials including asphalt, concrete and block paver surfacing materials with different designs, which can help reduce the uncertainty in understanding, evaluating and modeling the thermal behavior and environmental impacts of ground surfaces with different albedos. This study found that the albedo of pavement materials is high in the early morning and late afternoon; it is low and constant over time in the mid-day. This suggests that albedo should be measured near mid-day, which is addressed in one of two standard test procedures reviewed. Clouds will negatively influence the value of measured albedo. No significant seasonal variation in albedo was found over one year. No impact of wind speed or air temperature on albedo is observed with the instrument used. An empirical relationship between the cooling effect of increased albedo on a pavement’s high temperature and solar radiation was developed. The cooling effect has a positive correlation with the peak solar radiation intensity. This empirical relationship can be used to roughly estimate the cooling effect of increased albedo or heating effect of reduced albedo on pavement for various climates and seasons with different solar radiation intensities.
  Authors: Li, Hui; Harvey, John; Kendall, Alissa
  Authors: Li, Hui; Harvey, John; Kendall, Alissa
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 292
  Paper Number: 13-1116
• Cooling Effect of Permeable Asphalt Pavement Under Both Dry and Wet Conditions
  Abstract: The improvement of the street thermal environment for walking and cycling is attracting increased attention as a strategy for increasing livability. This approach has also been proposed as a strategy for mitigating the local heat island effect and reducing energy use for buildings and vehicle air conditioning during hot periods. This research explored a potential pavement design and management strategy that potentially could be used for improving the street thermal environment and mitigating heat islands. Through field measurements on pavement test sections with both conventional and alternative designs, the thermal behavior and cooling effect of permeable asphalt pavements under both dry and wet condition were investigated. The overall 7-day average cooling effect of wetting once on permeable pavements for near-surface air is approximately 0.2 to 0.45°C; for the surface it is approximately 1.2 to 1.6°C; and approximately 1.5 to 3.4°C for the in-depth layers. Based on the findings, permeable asphalt pavements have the potential of being a type of cool pavements which produces lower temperatures and thus helps improve the thermal environment and mitigate the heat island effect. However, attention should be given to this type of pavements under dry conditions. As a pavement thermal management strategy, water from rain or irrigation systems might need to be applied to the pavements to produce a better cooling effect for improving the thermal environment and mitigating the heat island.
  Authors: Li, Hui; Harvey, John; Jones, David
  Authors: Li, Hui; Harvey, John; Jones, David
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 292
  Paper Number: 13-1115
• Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting from Traffic-Induced Deformation of Pavements
  Abstract: In the last decade, while the concern of the robustness of the roadways was increasing, the focus on sensing technology has significantly grown. The limit of power supply has become an impediment force of the research field of sensing technology. Recently, energy harvesting is more proved as a promoting solution. It also provides a new source of clean and renewable energy that can help reduce negative environmental impacts while contributing to improve roadway mobility. In this work, four common energy harvesting approaches are compared and piezoelectric energy harvesting is proposed. It is known as a stable technology converting kinetic energy into electricity. The sinusoidal energy power output from the random external excitation would be rectified and stored by interfacial circuit. PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) is widely used in piezoelectric energy harvesting systems due to its high cost-effectiveness. This work presents a maneuver of powering the transportation infrastructural facilities and monitoring electronics using piezoelectric energy harvesting technology. Comparison of coupling configuration, material selection and testing methodologies are also presented.
  Authors: Xiong, Haocheng; Wang, Linbing; Wang, Dong; Druta, Cristian; Guo, Dajin; Sun, Zhengfu
  Authors: Xiong, Haocheng; Wang, Linbing; Wang, Dong; Druta, Cristian; Guo, Dajin; Sun, Zhengfu
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 465
  Paper Number: 13-1388
• Evaluation of Rejuvenator's Effectiveness with Conventional Mix Testing for 100% RAP Mixtures
  Abstract: This paper presents research evaluating effectiveness of rejuvenators for production of very high (40-100%) Reclaimed Asphalt pavement (RAP) content mixtures. Nine differently originated softening agents were tested, including plant oils, waste derived oils, engineered products, as well as traditional and non-traditional refinery base oils. Two different dosages of the agents were added to binder extracted from RAP to evaluate their softening potential through testing of kinematic viscosity and penetration at two different temperatures. At 25°C the softening efficiency varied by a factor of twelve between the most and least effective rejuvenators. Consistency results at different temperatures were used to express temperature susceptibility by means of Penetration Index (PI), Penetration-Viscosity Number (PVN) and Bitumen Test Data Chart (BTDC) of the softened binders. The PI results varied measurably depending on the rejuvenator and supported the low temperature mixture test results, showing that PI may be a good and simple measure of rejuvenation effectiveness. Low temperature mixture embrittlement was evaluated at -10°C through determination of the indirect tensile strength and creep compliance for rejuvenated 100% RAP mixture samples. It can be concluded that four of the nine tested rejuvenators reduced extracted binder consistency to the necessary level and reduced susceptibility of RAP mixtures to low temperature embrittlement. Of the four, two engineered products tested had notably different performance but neither was superior to similar generic oils.
  Authors: Zaumanis, Martins; Mallick, Rajib B.; Frank, Robert
  Authors: Zaumanis, Martins; Mallick, Rajib B.; Frank, Robert
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 307
  Paper Number: 13-1447
• Evaluation of Permanent Deformation Characteristics of Unbound Granular Materials from Multistage Repeated-Load Triaxial Test
  Abstract: A simple time hardening approach was used to model the accumulation of permanent deformation of unbound granular materials (UGM) in multi-stage (MS) repeated load triaxial (RLT) tests. Some of the existing permanent deformation models were used to implement this method and one model was slightly modified to better suit this approach. These models were calibrated using data from MS RLT tests on three different UGM used in base layers of flexible pavement structures. The material parameters of the models were optimized using least square curve fitting method. The shakedown ranges for each stress path of the RLT tests were calculated and the models were compared to see how well they simulate these ranges. Generally, very good fit was obtained for these models with the modified model showing the best agreement.
  Authors: Erlingsson, Sigurdur; Rahman, Mohammad Shafiqur
  Authors: Erlingsson, Sigurdur; Rahman, Mohammad Shafiqur
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 480
  Paper Number: 13-1472
• Influence of Thermal Segregation on Asphalt Pavement Compaction
  Abstract: Both aggregate and thermal segregation during asphalt compaction can cause premature failures in asphalt pavements. Whilst aggregate segregation is easier to identify by visual observation, thermal segregation is impossible to locate in this manner. To evaluate thermal segregation, a thermal imaging technique was employed in this investigation. Continuous profiles of the mat temperature were recorded during field compaction to identify possible locations of cold spots and the rate of temperature loss. The temperature difference was found approximately 14oC immediately after laying the material with scattered cold spots as well as faster heat loss at the lane interface and edges compared to the centre of mat. Laboratory investigations on roller compacted asphalt slabs showed that this temperature difference results in 5-7% higher voids at the edge compared to the centre, indicating inferior compaction. The effect of layer interface was also evaluated in the laboratory and were found 6-10% higher air void contents at the interface. The compaction level in these places was improved when the slabs were produced in a heated moulds (simulating a heated adjoining layer), indicating that better compaction can be achieved if temperatures at the interface are at elevated temperature whilst laying the material. Finally, 3D finite element modelling was conducted for transient thermal analysis to evaluate heat loss at the interface when a hot mixture (150oC) is laid on a cold layer (5oC) and on a layer at ambient temperature 22oC. The temperature at the contact path between new and existing layer showed that the inner part of the adjoining layer had considerably lower temperature compared to the upper part, resulting in non-uniform compaction between top and bottom of the layer.
  Authors: Rahman, Mujib; Grenfell, James; Arulanandam, Steve; Ianakiev, Anton
  Authors: Rahman, Mujib; Grenfell, James; Arulanandam, Steve; Ianakiev, Anton
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 657
  Paper Number: 13-1471
• Field Performance Evaluation of Stone Interlayer Pavement in Louisiana
  Abstract: A conventional cement stabilized/treated or soil cement base (CSB) layer has been used extensively for non-interstate asphalt pavements in Louisiana to overcome problems caused by soft subgrade soil. However, due to the shrinkage in the CSB layer, cracking occurs in the base, and subsequently reflects through to the surface of the asphalt pavement. In order to reduce reflective cracking and improve the long-term performance of asphalt pavements in Louisiana, a stone interlayer between the CSB layer and the hot mix asphalt concrete (HMA) surface layer had been adopted. In this study, field performances of a stone interlayer pavement test section and cement stabilized base test control section on LA-97 in Acadia Parish, Louisiana, were monitored during 20 years of service. In addition, performances of other nine stone interlayer pavement sections in Louisiana constructed from 1999 to 2008 were monitored and evaluated. Field evaluations in this study included distress surveys on all 11 pavement sections, and nondestructive evaluation of pavement structure by the falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and the dynamic deflection determination system (Dynaflect) test on nine of those sections. The field evaluation results indicated that the stone interlayer test section on LA-97 had a superior pavement performance than the control section over the 20 years of service, and other nine stone interlayer pavement sections were in a very good pavement condition after 2.5 to 12 years of service.
  Authors: Chen, Xingwei; Zhang, Zhongjie; Lambert, Jeff
  Authors: Chen, Xingwei; Zhang, Zhongjie; Lambert, Jeff
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 239
  Paper Number: 13-1556
• Developing an Analysis Framework to Quantify and Compare Skid Resistance Performance on Porous and Nonporous Pavements
  Abstract: Porous pavement surfaces are widely used as means to improve wet-pavement skid resistance and to reduce skidding accidents. While there have been numerous studies in the literature on the ability of porous pavements in providing better skid resistance as compared to non-porous pavements, many of them are experimental in nature and could not offer a mechanistic interpretation on the skid resistance behavior exhibited by porous pavements. This paper therefore presents an analysis framework that can mechanistically quantify the amount of skid resistance available on porous and non-porous pavement surfaces and to understand the key factors involved. The analysis framework consists of two key modules. The first module determines the water film thickness accumulated on pavement surfaces for a given rainfall intensity while the second module computes wet-pavement skid resistance with consideration to structural mechanics, fluid dynamics, fluid-structure-interaction and flow within a porous medium. The developed framework is first validated against past experimental data and was found predict skid resistance accurately. An illustrative case study is then presented to quantify and compare skid resistance performance between porous and non-porous pavements. It is demonstrated through this case study that the developed framework can not only effectively compare skid resistance performances between porous and non-porous pavement surfaces, but can also provide a fundamental understanding of skid resistance development on those pavements.
  Authors: Zhang, Lei; Ong, Ghim Ping; Fwa, Tien Fang
  Authors: Zhang, Lei; Ong, Ghim Ping; Fwa, Tien Fang
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 384
  Paper Number: 13-1762
• Framework for Determination of Load Equivalencies Using DARWin-ME
  Abstract: This paper presents a methodology for determination of load equivalencies for different axle configurations and loads using mechanistic-empirical design procedures. The focus was on oversize/overweight (OS/OW) vehicles. The study uses the DARWin-ME system for pavement analysis and computation of Equivalent Damage Factors (EDF). In the context of this study, the EDF for a given axle load and configuration consists of two partial factors: Axle Load Factor (ALF) and Group Equivalency Factor (GEF). The framework adopted in this study defines a given axle load and configuration as equivalent to a reference axle load, as based on equivalent pavement responses that result in the same distress level. The study uses a modular approach to determine the EDF for different vehicle configurations. The load equivalency for a given truck configuration is equal to the sum of the EDF of its constituent axles. To that effect, the EDFs for single, tandem, tridem, and quad axles were evaluated over a wide spectrum of varying loads using three different failure criteria: rutting, fatigue cracking, and roughness. This approach provided the basis for developing the models for predicting the EDF of any given axle configuration for any given load.With the exception of rutting, the research yielded no strong evidence suggesting that the EDFs are affected by the structural capacity of the pavement sections. For single axles, however, the structural capacity had an inverse relationship with the EDFs, which suggests that thicker pavement structures are less sensitive to traffic loads. In the case of tandem, tridem, and quad axles, the relationship was non-monotonic, with the EDFs reaching their peak for structural numbers between 3.5 and 4.0. In the case of fatigue cracking, even though the structural number did not clearly influence the EDFs, a linear relationship exists between the ALF and the number of axles per axle group. Finally, in the case of roughness, the EDFs did not show any systematic trend for different structural numbers, which led the researchers to propose an average ALF that is independent of the axle group or the structural capacity of the pavement section.
  Authors: Banerjee, Ambarish; Prozzi, Jorge A.; Buddhavarapu, Prasad N. V. S. R.
  Authors: Banerjee, Ambarish; Prozzi, Jorge A.; Buddhavarapu, Prasad N. V. S. R.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 242
  Paper Number: 13-1770
• Methodology for Evaluating Climate Change Impact on Asphalt Pavement Design Life
  Abstract: A methodology to evaluate the impact of climate change on asphalt pavement design life has been developed by linking together a pavement performance model and an innovative climate model. The DARWin-ME software, based on the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, has been used to predict changes in pavement performances. The national model Meteonorm 7.0, based on the combination of 18 general circulation models and a stochastic approach for regional modeling, has been applied as climate model.The methodology has been applied to Swiss specific road conditions, by combining different climate and site specific characteristics (pavement, traffic, subgrade, climate region, etc.). The results have permitted to evaluate, in a first step, current asphalt pavements for future climate conditions in terms of change in their predicted design life. In a second step, current asphalt pavements have been adapted by changing their characteristics in order to reach recommended design life. Finally, recommendations and guidelines on adapting current road infrastructures for the future have been exposed. This article focuses solely on results from the first step of the methodology.
  Authors: Rychen, Patrick; Carter, Alan; Dumont, Andre-Gilles
  Authors: Rychen, Patrick; Carter, Alan; Dumont, Andre-Gilles
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Environment; Pavements
  Session: 660
  Paper Number: 13-1337
• Application of Roller-Compacted Concrete for Bike Road Pavement: Mechanical Performance, Durability, and Rideability
  Abstract: This study proposes to use a roller compacted concrete technique for a bike road construction with advantages of its environment-friendliness. Roller compacted concrete, a durable paving material that can carry heavy traffic loads, has been developed as a fast, economical construction method. This study aims to find an optimum mix proportions and application method for field construction. Experimental programs included laboratory tests and field constructions for mechanical performance, durability and ride-ability under difference compaction rates. Based on the observations from compressive strength tests, it is recommended that the mixes for the low cementitious materials-based roller compacted concrete pavement have the cementitious binder content greater than 250kgf/m3. In order to provide appropriate workability the water content should be at least greater than 120kgf/m3 when the binder content is greater than 250kgf/m3. When the compaction method suggested herein is applied it is strongly recommended that the low cement based roller compacted concrete pavement has its compaction ratio greater than 93%. The proposed method could provide sufficient surface roughness profile and skid resistance but was weak to de-icing chemicals.
  Authors: Lee, Seung Woo; Park, Cheolwoo; Cho, Yoon-Ho; Lee, Hyun Jong; Kim, In-Tai
  Authors: Lee, Seung Woo; Park, Cheolwoo; Cho, Yoon-Ho; Lee, Hyun Jong; Kim, In-Tai
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 237
  Paper Number: 13-1664
• Clustering of Pavement Stretches and Determining OptimumNumber of Clusters for Pavement Maintenance
  Abstract: When a large number of pavement stretches are to be maintained, the decision making becomes complicated and prioritization of individual stretches is not much useful in taking maintenance management decisions. In such situations grouping or clustering the pavement stretches having similar distress characteristics would be the practical and effective approach. Since a number of distresses are observed on pavements and usually they are being represented in different levels of severity and extent it becomes quite difficult to cluster them. The problem becomes further aggravated as the weights of various distresses also play an important role and it is difficult toexpress them objectively. A methodology has been suggested in this paper on the clustering of pavement stretches and also to find out the optimum number of clusters. The technique has been explained with the help of a case study carried out in a few selected stretches in the state of Rajasthan, India.
  Authors: Sarkar, Ashoke Kumar; Sandra, Amarendra Kumar
  Authors: Sarkar, Ashoke Kumar; Sandra, Amarendra Kumar
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 662
  Paper Number: 13-1475
• Performance Assessment of Geosynthetics Versus Cement as Subgrade Stabilization Measures
  Abstract: Work in this paper presents the results of field testing on four instrumented roadway sections constructed on poor subgrade soils and stabilized with select fill, geosynthetics or cement. Loading was applied using 1000 consecutive truck passes and profile surveying was performed to provide permanent deformation (rutting) data. Peak vertical stresses at the subgrade as well as moisture conditions were also monitored. Results indicated that the deep undercut (31 inch) with select material backfill section produced the largest cumulative rut depths due shallow incremental plastic strains induced during each axle pass. The use of a thin ABC surface layer (2 to 3 inch) over the select material reduced the rate of rutting. The biaxial geogrid and the high strength geotextile showed a relatively equal performance in all aspects of the study. The cement stabilized section produced slightly larger average rut depth than the geosynthetically-reinforced sections due to localized areas of pronounced cumulative rutting. However, there were several areas of the soil-cement test section that performed as well as the geosynthetically-reinforced sections.
  Authors: Cowell, Tim; Pyo, Sangchul; Gabr, Mohammed A.; Borden, Roy H.; Kim, Kyung Jun
  Authors: Cowell, Tim; Pyo, Sangchul; Gabr, Mohammed A.; Borden, Roy H.; Kim, Kyung Jun
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 623
  Paper Number: 13-1536
• Global Sensitivity Analysis of Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Performance Predictions for Flexible Pavements
  Abstract: The new AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) provides pavement analysis and performance predictions under various feasible design scenarios. The MEPDG performance predictions for the anticipated climatic and traffic conditions will depend on the values of the input parameters that characterize the pavement materials, layers, design features, and condition. This paper focuses on comprehensive global sensitivity analyses (GSA) of flexible pavement performance predictions to MEPDG design inputs under five climatic conditions and three traffic levels. Design inputs evaluated in the analyses include traffic volume, layer thicknesses, material properties, groundwater depth, geometric parameters, and others. Correlations among design inputs were considered where appropriate. The GSA varied all design inputs simultaneously across the entire problem domain for each of the 15 base cases (5 climates x 3 traffic levels). Two response surface modeling (RSM) approaches, multivariate linear regressions (MVLR) and artificial neural networks (ANN or NN), were developed to model the GSA results for evaluation of design input sensitivities across the entire problem domain. The ANN-based RSMs for MEPDG flexible pavement performance predictions not only provide robust and accurate representations of the complex relationships between design inputs and distress outputs but also capture the variation of sensitivities across the problem domain. The design limit normalized sensitivity index (NSI) adopted for this study provides practical interpretation of sensitivity relating a given percentage change in a design input to the corresponding percentage change in predicted distress relative to its design limit value.
  Authors: Schwartz, Charles W.; Li, Rui; Ceylan, Halil; Kim, Sunghwan; Gopalakrishnan, Kasthurirangan
  Authors: Schwartz, Charles W.; Li, Rui; Ceylan, Halil; Kim, Sunghwan; Gopalakrishnan, Kasthurirangan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 318
  Paper Number: 13-1572
• Evaluation of Functional Properties of Porous Asphalt Pavements Subjected to Clogging and Densification of Air Voids
  Abstract: This study was motivated by concerns that porous asphalt concrete (PAC) might not perform well under the environmental and traffic conditions. It was feared that the drainability, friction, and noise benefits of PACs would be rapidly lost. PAC sections were constructed by using three different types of asphalt as follows: non-modified bitumen (NMB), polymer-modified bitumen (PMB), and highly-modified bitumen (HMB). These sections were completed in 2008 and evaluated twice per year for their functionality. Clogging and densification were shown to be the main reason to cause reduction in air voids of PAC. For the NMB and PMB sections, more than 70% of reduction in air voids resulted from traffic compaction, while less than 30% for the HMB section. The decrease in drainability corresponded well with the decrease in air voids. Cleaning PAC mixtures did not appear to be effective for the NMB and PMB sections since most reduction in air voids resulted from traffic compaction. Because of the significant amount of macrotexture produced within PAC pavement surfaces, PAC layers maintained adequate frictional characteristics even after become clogged and condensed. The noise characteristics of PAC depended on the air void content. No rutting, raveling, cracking or other failures have been observed on the three monitored sections to any significant extent since open to traffic in 2008, which suggests that PAC may be a viable pavement surface type for use on highways to provide good performance, including good friction, reduced splash and spray, and reduced tire¡Vpavement noise.
  Authors: Chen, Jian-Shiuh; Hsieh, Weichou; Liao, Min-Chih
  Authors: Chen, Jian-Shiuh; Hsieh, Weichou; Liao, Min-Chih
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 711
  Paper Number: 13-1623
• Modeling the Impact of Energy Trafficon Local Unpaved Roads
  Abstract: Laramie County was selected in accordance with the legislative directive as part of a project to determine the impact of the oil and gas industry on county roads. This paper takes into account the impact gravel roads. With a lacking road and bridge budget, Laramie county is only just keeping up with this impact. In order to receive additional funding from the state legislature, actual impact needs to be assessed. The different distresses and ride quality of all the county gravel roads showed that, on average, the roads were in good condition, no matter the level of impact. However, the cost to keep the impacted roads in this condition came at a much greater price. By modeling the characteristics of the gravel roads in Laramie County, a better understanding of the degradation taking place and the main causes were examined. This was done in hopes that the information from this model will then be used for more efficient maintenance strategies and a more cost effective use of the county’s budget so that the county may continue to keep up with the energy impact. The processed developed in this study is very useful for other local agencies impacted by energy development.
  Authors: Stroud, Nathan; Ksaibati, Khaled
  Authors: Stroud, Nathan; Ksaibati, Khaled
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 240
  Paper Number: 13-1702
• Comparative Analysis of Life-Cycle Cost Analysis Methods of Asphalt and Concrete Pavement Preservation Treatments in Oklahoma
  Abstract: This paper demonstrates the benefit of using the “pavement preservation toolbox” in the selection of asphalt and concrete pavement treatments, the final product developed as a result of a three-year pavement preservation research project. It was designed to furnish Oklahoma Department of Transportation (ODOT) pavement managers the required information to make rational engineering decisions based on both physical and financial data for the use of potential pavement preservation tools, evaluated in the field under identical traffic and environmental conditions, over the same period by an impartial investigator. The project built on research done in Australia and New Zealand by conducting a long-term study of 23 methods to restore pavement skid resistance by retexturing the existing surface with either a surface treatment, chemical treatment, or a mechanical process. The paper demonstrates the toolbox methodology using field trial data for selected treatments and provides a comparative analysis of various methods for coupling technical engineering data with economic analysis through use of deterministic, stochastic and performance-based life cycle cost analysis. The paper concludes that although the combination of skid resistance, macrotexture, and financial data is sensitive to the analysis method, it can provide a powerful tool to assist pavement preservation engineers in selecting the appropriate treatment for a given road.
  Authors: Pittenger, Dominique; Gransberg, Douglas D.; Zaman, Musharraf; Riemer, Caleb James
  Authors: Pittenger, Dominique; Gransberg, Douglas D.; Zaman, Musharraf; Riemer, Caleb James
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 256
  Paper Number: 13-1704
• A Preliminary Analysis on Determination of Optimum Crack Sealing Time for Asphalt Pavement
  Abstract: Crack is one of the major causes of failure in asphalt pavements, and it also accelerates the severity of other distresses. Crack sealing is one of the main methods of preventive maintenance. However, until now, there has no standard procedure based on rigorous scientific approach to determine the best sealing time of the cracks. Therefore, this study aimed to establish a preliminary crack opening model for northeast region of China. Generally, it is found that the absolute change value for crack width in one year is much higher than that in one day. Therefore the following preliminary crack opening model was built based on the year round observation data for unsealed asphalt pavement. The 20¡Á20 mm square reservoirs for crack sealing was selected to discuss the effect of sealing time on the crack sealing performance. The approximate analysis has shown that the unreasonable sealing time will induce the premature failure for sealant and sealant-crack system. Especially, at low temperature, the sealant needs to have a good ductility to prevent the fracture itself. Finally, a polynomial function was proposed to describe the crack opening distance. The model was then used to preliminary determine the appropriated crack sealing timing of the year. It is recommended that select the average temperature between the two inflexions in polynomial function as the sealing temperature, and the corresponding time as the sealing time. It is also noticed that this time varies for different regions.
  Authors: Yi, Junyan; Feng, Decheng; Yang, Shih-Hsien; Yu, Fei
  Authors: Yi, Junyan; Feng, Decheng; Yang, Shih-Hsien; Yu, Fei
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 698
  Paper Number: 13-1336
• Sigmoid Distress Prediction Models at Project Level for Main Urban Flexible Pavements Based on Historical Data
  Abstract: The development of distress prediction models for overlaid flexible main street pavements in large municipalities cross Saudi Arabia is described. The sigmoid of models represented quantitatively predict distress density versus pavement age and are based on pavement condition data maintained by the General Directorate of Operation and Maintenance (GDOM) at the Municipality of Riyadh city, Jeddah city, Makkah holy city, Madinah city, and Damam city. Different model forms of the sigmoid family were examined in an attempt to identify the most appropriate one for fitting the data. Models are available for the following distress types in flexible main street pavements: Block Cracks, Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking, Patching, Potholes, Depressions, Weathering and Raveling, and Cracking (due to patching). The seven models have been developed using more than 11 years survey data for overlaid sections on the road network of Riyadh, Jeddah, Makkah, Madinah, and Damam. In all prediction models, age is by far the most significant predictor of deterioration. The traffic volume in terms of Annual Daily Traffic (ADT) and the drainage play only a secondary role in forecasting prediction of distress propagation. In general, the developed models provided an
  Authors: Mubaraki, Muhammad; Thom, Nick
  Authors: Mubaraki, Muhammad; Thom, Nick
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-1803
• Comparison of Isotropic and Cross-Anisotropic Analysis of Pavement Structures
  Abstract: In most existing pavement design methods, including South African Mechanistic Design Method (SAMDM), pavements are analyzed using linear elastic multilayer theory. In this approach, it is assumed that isotropic conditions are present in the structural layers of the pavement section. There are however numerous researchers that disagree with this statement and their research have proven that there are inherent and induced anisotropic material behaviors in the structural layers of a pavement section. The problem facing the SAMDM is that this anisotropic behavior of material may reduce the predicted life of pavement sections as described in the South African Technical Recommendations for Highway (TRH 4). The objective of this study was to determine if cross-anisotropic conditions induced in the pavement layer reduced the predicted life resulting in gross overestimation of the SAMDM in South Africa. During this study pavements were analyzed using cross-anisotropic conditions in the layers. The results from the analysis showed that the asphalt surfacing layer is very sensitive to cross-anisotropic conditions. The tendency is to reduce the predicted life drastically with any variation of stiffness modulus relative to each direction. The granular layer tends to reduced predicted life resulting in overestimation of current values in the TRH 4. The cemented layers show some increase in predicted life in the cemented phase but an overall tendency in decreased predicted life. The main conclusion evident from each layer is that the current design method in the SAMDM must include cross-anisotropic analysis to achieve more realistic values of predicted life for pavement sections.
  Authors: Steyn, Wynand Jacobus van der Merwe; Maina, James William; Repsold, Anton
  Authors: Steyn, Wynand Jacobus van der Merwe; Maina, James William; Repsold, Anton
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 480
  Paper Number: 13-1871
• Experimental Investigation of Chip Seal Adhesion Performance with Modified Binder in Cold Climate
  Abstract: The purpose of this study is to evaluate chip seal performance with neat and polymer modified bitumen chip seals constructed with different aggregate combinations with emphasis on aggregate retention under in climate using Accelerated Chip Seal Simulation Device (HSKSC). The aggregate retention performances of neat bitumen versus modified were compared with three types of aggregates at low temperatures. Major findings of this research include that polymer modification of neat bitumen improved aggregate retention performance. In addition, the results showed that decrease in temperature causes an increase in aggregate loss.
  Authors: Aktas, Bekir; Karasahin, Mustafa
  Authors: Aktas, Bekir; Karasahin, Mustafa
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-1916
• Evaluating Pavement Condition of National Highway System
  Abstract: The Federal highway Administration (FHWA) recently conducted a study to identify a means to evaluate health of the interstate highway system with a specific focus on pavements and bridges. One important component of any statement of health is the condition of the pavement, which is the focus of this paper. A set of six potential metrics were reviewed using data on an 874-mile long corridor of I-90 as a potential means for evaluating pavement condition in terms of good/fair/poor across the interstate network. Metrics reviewed included both functional and structural pavement condition. The study concludes that currently the International Roughness Index (IRI) provides the most consistent method for evaluating ride quality condition. Other metrics pursued using distress or structural condition are not currently suitable as nationwide condition measures and will require further work before these can be implemented for routine use.
  Authors: Simpson, Amy; Rada, Gonzalo R.; Visintine, Beth; Groeger, Jonathan
  Authors: Simpson, Amy; Rada, Gonzalo R.; Visintine, Beth; Groeger, Jonathan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 780
  Paper Number: 13-2027
• Experimental Study of Sustainable Asphalt: Influence of Thermochromic Materials
  Abstract: Asphalt pavements are widely used in highways due to their good performance and relatively low construction and maintenance costs. However, the black color of asphalt implies that the sunlight is not reflected but absorbed, which raises the temperature of the asphalt pavement and impairs its long-term durability. Thermochromic materials are substances that can reversibly change their colors in response to temperature. They reflect solar energy at high temperature and absorb that at low temperature. The innovation by this paper is to investigate the use of thermochromic materials in asphalt to develop thermochromic asphalt, which will reduce the surface temperature of asphalt pavement and lead to improved durability. Their thermochromic transition temperatures, which were characterized by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), range from 19.83 to 34.8 °C. The latent heats are between 1.74 and 3.59 J/g. The heat capacities measured with modulated DSC at 15, 25 and 35 °C are in the range of 1.392-1.724 J/(g•°C). Thermal conductivities were calculated in the range of 0.1478-0.2282 W/(m•°C). Both heat capacities and thermal conductivities at 25 °C are higher than those at other temperatures due to phase transition. The red and black asphalt show relatively higher heat capacities and thermal conductivities than the conventional pure asphalt. Comparison measurements found that the surface temperature of thermochromic asphalt can be significantly lower than that of the conventional pure asphalt with maximum decrease as high as 6.6 °C during summer. During winter and nocturnal in summer, the surface temperature of thermochromic asphalts are higher than that of the conventional pure asphalt, which helps to keep asphalt pavement warm and alleviates the problem of icing. The reduced surface temperature during summer and increased surface temperature during winter using thermochormic materials can be both desirable. For use as roof, for example, the use of thermochromic asphalt can lead to energy saving for air conditioning as high as 24%. This not only reduces the energy cost but also helps mitigate urban heat island and improve air quality and comfort.
  Authors: Hu, Jianying; Yu, Xiong
  Authors: Hu, Jianying; Yu, Xiong
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 292
  Paper Number: 13-2029
• Effect of Asphalt Oxidation on Performance of LTPP SPS-9A Sections in Connecticut
  Abstract: Six asphalt pavement test sections were constructed in 1997 on Route 2 in Connecticut to conduct the Special Pavement Study (SPS-9A) experiment under the Long Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) program. The SPS-9A experiment lasted 12 years and targeted comparison of long-term performance of SuperPave and Marshall mixes modified with recycled asphalt pavement (RAP). This paper analyses differences in post-termination distresses and structural capacity in the LTPP SPS-9A sections as related to their asphalt oxidation level after 12 years of service. The distress data was retrieved from videologs collected by an Automated Road Analyzer, while structural capacity was evaluated by elastic moduli backcalculated from deflections measured by a Falling Weight Deflectometer. The oxidation levels were measured by a portable infrared spectrometer on the pre-stored original binders and those extracted from the cores. In addition, direct infrared measurements on asphalt mixtures from the top of the cores were conducted. On average, all RAP-modified mixes yielded lower elastic moduli than non-modified ones. In addition, RAP-modified SuperPave mixes shown higher severity of surface cracking and very high level of weathering. The difference in the effect of RAP on structural integrity and distress performance of Superpave and Marshal mixes was attributed to aging susceptibility of their binder components.
  Authors: Yut, Iliya; Zofka, Adam
  Authors: Yut, Iliya; Zofka, Adam
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 377
  Paper Number: 13-2032
• Characteristics of Flow in Porous Pavements and Porous Friction Courses
  Abstract: Porous pavements (PP) and porous friction courses (PFC) are increasingly recognized as viable alternatives to traditional impervious pavements. Porous pavements and PFCs passively provide safety, hydrologic and water treatment benefits. These benefits are a result of such porous mediums providing hydraulic conveyance capacity and filtration of particulate matter (PM) transported by rainfall-runoff. With respect to 1) hydrology, these porous mediums re-introduce infiltration, evaporation and storage phenomena; 2) traffic and road safety, increase skid resistance in wet conditions, reduce hydroplaning, reduce splash and spray phenomena; and 3) water treatment, function as a filter for PM and PM-bound constituents. These phenomena and the models thereof are a function of the hydrodynamics within the porous medium (which are not necessarily laminar) and commonly characterized using the hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium. Within the scope of this study the measured hydraulic conductivity (permeability) of 12 common porous asphalt mixes were examined. As is common for PP and PFCs, a Darcian model for the hydraulic conductivity in the laminar regime of flow was examined. However during testing, hydrodynamic regimes in porous asphalt that extended beyond the laminar regime were identified for these porous mixes. Therefore, the variability of the hydraulic conductivity as a function of applied hydraulic head within a hydrodynamic regime (as quantified by the Reynolds number) was measured and modelled. From these results a saturated seepage model valid for the laminar and transitional regimes has been developed. Implications for the application of standardized permeameter for such porous mix designs are reported
  Authors: Ranieri, Vittorio; Colonna, Pasquale; Sansalone, John Joseph
  Authors: Ranieri, Vittorio; Colonna, Pasquale; Sansalone, John Joseph
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 460
  Paper Number: 13-2173
• Development of Improved and More Effective Dynamic Modulus E* Model for Mixtures in Costa Rica by Means of Artificial Neural Networks
  Abstract: Various dynamic modulus (E*) predictive models have been developed to estimate E* as an alternative to laboratory testing. The most widely used model is the 1999 I-37A Witczak predictive equation based on North American mixtures laboratory results. The differences in material properties, traffic information, and environmental conditions for Latin American countries make it necessary to calibrate these models using local conditions. Consequently, the National Laboratory of Materials and Structural Models at the University of Costa Rica (in Spanish, LanammeUCR) has previously performed a local calibration of this model based on E* values for different types of Costa Rican mixtures. However, further research has shown that there is still room for improvement in the accuracy of the calibrated model (Witczak-Lanamme model) based on advanced regression techniques such as artificial neural networks (ANN). The objective of this study was to develop an improved and more effective dynamic modulus E* predictive regression model for mixtures in Costa Rica by means of ANN based models. A comparison of the predicted E* values among the Witczak model, Witczak-Lanamme model and the new and improved model based on artificial neural networks (ANN-Lanamme model) indicated that the former not only met the model adequacy checking criteria but also exhibited the best goodness of fit parameters and the lowest overall bias. The findings of this study also supported the use of more advanced regression techniques that can become a more attractive alternative to local calibration of the Witczak I-37A equation.
  Authors: Leiva-Villacorta, Fabricio; Loria-Salazar, Luis; Aguiar-Moya, José Pablo
  Authors: Leiva-Villacorta, Fabricio; Loria-Salazar, Luis; Aguiar-Moya, José Pablo
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 554
  Paper Number: 13-2176
• ANN-Based Prediction Model for Rutting Propensity of Asphalt Mixtures
  Abstract: This paper investigates the applicability of artificial neural network (ANN) for the prediction flow number of dense asphalt-aggregate mixtures. Percentages of coarse aggregate, filler, bitumen, air voids, voids in mineral aggregate, and Marshall Quotient were employed as the predictor variables. A comprehensive experimental database was used for the development of the models. The statistical measures of coefficient of determination, coefficient of efficiency, root mean squared error, and mean absolute error were used to evaluate the performance of the models. Sensitivity and parametric analyses were conducted and discussed. The ANN models accurately characterize the flow number of asphalt mixtures resulting in a very good prediction performance. The proposed model remarkably outperforms several existing prediction models for the flow number of asphalt mixtures.
  Authors: Mirzahosseini, Mohammadreza
  Authors: Mirzahosseini, Mohammadreza
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 367
  Paper Number: 13-2180
• Assessment of Pavement Impacts due to Energy Developments in Texas
  Abstract: In recent years, Texas has experienced a boom in energy-related activities, particularly in wind power generation and extraction of oil and natural gas. While energy developments contribute to enhance the state¡¯s ability to produce energy reliably, many short-term and long-term impacts on the state¡¯s transportation infrastructure are not properly documented. Examples include the impact of frequent truckloads on state highway infrastructure such as pavement structures and shoulders, as well as impacts on roadside infrastructure such as driveways and drainage facilities. This paper describes the work to gauge the impact of increased level of energy-related activities on Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) pavements based on developing a geodatabase of energy developments in the state, field visits along with data collection, and assessment of remaining life of energy development impacted corridors that have been identified from this study. From this assessment, recommendations on road maintenance and repair were proposed to mitigate the impact of energy developments on Texas pavements.
  Authors: Oh, Jeong Ho; Fernando, Emmanuel G.; Quiroga, Cesar
  Authors: Oh, Jeong Ho; Fernando, Emmanuel G.; Quiroga, Cesar
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 808
  Paper Number: 13-2235
• Performance Evaluation of Permeable Friction Courses in Texas
  Abstract: The use of permeable friction course (PFC) pavements is very common in Texas, the United States, and other countries. Some of the benefits of using PFCs include pavement noise reduction, enhanced safety by improved drainability and subsequent reduction in splash and spray during wet weather, and better ride quality. In the current study, performance of different PFC sections in Texas is evaluated over a period of four years in terms of functionality, durability, and safety. Findings from this study indicate that PFC sections performed better as compared to reference hot mix asphalt sections in terms of texture and friction, achieving the goal of providing a safer ride surface. The overall performance of PFCs through time was satisfactory, although certain field sections exhibited failures such as loss of drainability, raveling, and changes in friction. This paper discusses the causes of these failures and provides recommendations to prevent reoccurrence in subsequent projects.
  Authors: Arambula, Edith; Garcia Cucalon, Lorena; Valluri, Divya; Martin, Amy Epps; Estakhri, Cindy K.
  Authors: Arambula, Edith; Garcia Cucalon, Lorena; Valluri, Divya; Martin, Amy Epps; Estakhri, Cindy K.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 552
  Paper Number: 13-2239
• Sound Absorption and Friction Responses of Nano-Concrete for Rigid Pavements
  Abstract: This paper mainly reports on the influence of nanosilica on friction and sound absorption responses of concrete for application in rigid pavements. The feasibility of applying the nano-lotus leaf as a coating for concrete material is also discussed in this paper. Previous research on friction and sound absorption characteristics of concrete pavement mostly emphasized creating different surface textures through macrotexture modifications. The microstructure can also have significant effect on the surface texture, friction and sound absorption characteristics of concrete. This research studied the friction and sound absorption properties of concrete based on the microtexture modification using nano-materials such as nanosilica and nano-lotus leaf.Several laboratory concretes were produced using different proportions of nanosilica, which was used as a partial replacement of cement by weight. The fresh concretes were tested for workability, wet density, and air content. The hardened concretes were tested for compressive strength, friction and sound absorption. The British pendulum test was used to determine the friction number. The sound absorption coefficient was determined using an impedance tube. Preliminary results indicate that nanosilica can increase friction and sound absorption of concrete pavements. Also, the results show that the nano-lotus leaf can be applied as a coating on concrete material for rigid pavements to retain their friction property.
  Authors: Gonzalez, Marcelo; Safiuddin, Md.; Tighe, Susan Louise
  Authors: Gonzalez, Marcelo; Safiuddin, Md.; Tighe, Susan Louise
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 711
  Paper Number: 13-2248
• Local Calibration of MEPDG Distress Models for Flexible Pavements Using Ontario’s Long-Term PMS Data
  Abstract: Local calibration is an important step before a transportation agency adopts the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG). This paper presents the challenges of and findings from the local calibration of flexible pavements in provincial highways under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO). A calibration database was developed that involved a hierarchical framework of the input parameters required for DARWin-ME (the MEPDG software) and the historical field performance data based on the MTO’s second-generation pavement management system (PMS-2). A calibration-clustering-validation approach was taken for the local calibration. The analysis suggested that whereas the MEPDG provided fairly unbiased prediction of the IRI value, it often over predicted the total rutting. A further clustering analysis based on functional class and geographical zone for the rutting and IRI, respectively, improved the precision of the locally calibrated models.
  Authors: Yuan, Xian-Xun; Jannat, Gulfam; Shehata, Medhat
  Authors: Yuan, Xian-Xun; Jannat, Gulfam; Shehata, Medhat
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 318
  Paper Number: 13-2303
• Suction Characteristics of Two Expansive Soils
  Abstract: An investigation was conducted to determine the effects of temperature, compaction water content, and compaction effort on soil suction of two expansive soils. For this purpose, two bentonites were statically compacted at target water contents ranging from 5% to 20%. This made it possible to explore a broad spectrum of compaction conditions. Filter paper method and thermocouple psychrometer were used to measure soil suction at temperatures ranging from 10¢XC to 60¢XC. Experimental results show that compaction water content, compaction effort, and temperature have influences on soil suction. As water content increases, the influences of compaction effort and temperature on suction become less significant. Finally multiple regression formulations for predicting the soil suction of as-compacted clayey soil were established.
  Authors: Yang, Shu-Rong; Huang, Wei-Hsing; Chung, Shao-Hung
  Authors: Yang, Shu-Rong; Huang, Wei-Hsing; Chung, Shao-Hung
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 205
  Paper Number: 13-2011
• Revision and Further Validation of Surface-Performance Graded Specification for Surface Treatment Binders
  Abstract: The design and selection of surface treatment binders in service is currently based on specifications that only account for the penetration and ductility of emulsion residues or the penetration and viscosity of hot-applied asphalt cements. These specifications consider neither the entire range of temperatures that the binders may be subjected to during production and in service, nor long-term aging behavior. A surface performance-graded (SPG) specification for the selection of surface treatment binders, which takes into account the physical properties and performance of the binder at the temperature ranges in which the material will be used, was developed as part of previous Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) and National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) projects. In the current study, the SPG specification was revised and further validated. This was accomplished by standardizing the emulsion residue recovery method through the evaluation of two warm oven methods, exploring the exclusive use of the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) for determining performance-based properties, and further field validating the thresholds for these properties. The laboratory and field results were used to revise the SPG specification for surface treatment binders in service. Moreover, the results obtained from the multiple stress creep recovery and DSR frequency sweep tests were compared with field performance to evaluate additional criteria for the specification. This study is limited to producing a revised SPG specification for properties that address stiffness and aggregate retention in service; the effects of construction and quality control processes are beyond the scope of this study.
  Authors: Vijaykumar, Aishwarya; Martin, Amy Epps; Arambula, Edith
  Authors: Vijaykumar, Aishwarya; Martin, Amy Epps; Arambula, Edith
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-2250
• Effects of Asphalt Concrete Anisotropy on Predicted Pavement Response at High Temperatures
  Abstract: In this study, predictions of strain gauge calibrated full-scale micromechanical (MM) finite element (FE) models were used to identify the effects of asphalt concrete anisotropy on predicted asphalt concrete pavement performance. The accuracy of layered elastic theory (LET) models that are used in pavement design today were also evaluated. The MM FE model was first developed to simulate a laboratory shear test. Second, model parameters determined for the laboratory shear tests were used to develop MM FE models for full-scale pavement test sections. A virtual strain gauge was also included in the MM FE models for calibration. LET models were also calibrated using the measured strain gauge responses. Predictions of calibrated MM FE and LET models were compared to determine the effects of the absence of anisotropy in LET models on predicted pavement responses. Recommendations were also made for future use of the MM FE models to improve the predictive capability of LET models.
  Authors: Coleri, Erdem; Harvey, John
  Authors: Coleri, Erdem; Harvey, John
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 574
  Paper Number: 13-2166
• Falling Weight Deflectometer Loading Pulse Duration and Its Effect on Predicted Pavement Responses
  Abstract: Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) testing is commonly used to characterize, through backcalculation, in situ moduli of flexible pavement layers. While an often-used tool, it is well known that the short duration impact load applied by the FWD is often much faster than load durations applied by traffic. This can lead to an overestimation of asphalt concrete (AC) layer moduli under traffic which can underestimate computed pavement responses for design. The objective of this study was to determine the ability of FWD testing to represent traffic loading and pavement responses at typical operating speeds. FWD tests were performed on nine sections containing instrumentation at the National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) Test Track. The measured FWD pulse durations ranged from 0.030 to 0.050 seconds over a range of temperatures. Measured loading pulse durations from trucks moving at 45 mph were found to be two to three times greater than the measured FWD pulse durations at the same temperature. The mechanistic analysis software 3D-Move was used to model moving loads to produce a loading pulse equivalent to the loading pulse produced by the FWD. The equivalent speed was determined to be over 120 mph. Statistically significant differences between the simulated responses from the Test Track operating speed of 45 mph and at simulated responses from the equivalent FWD speeds were obtained.
  Authors: Leiva-Villacorta, Fabricio; Timm, David H.
  Authors: Leiva-Villacorta, Fabricio; Timm, David H.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 665
  Paper Number: 13-2171
• Pavement Maintenance Management Through Network Partition
  Abstract: This paper presents a new optimization model to the problem of pavement maintenance planning for a large-scale road network. In the past, this problem has usually been formulated as linear programming or integer programming model. The solutions obtained from those models determine the timing, location and type of treatment to perform the maintenance operation for a given planning horizon. However, a shortcoming of those models is that the selected sections for maintenance are usually distributed spatially across the network, making it difficult to plan and implement maintenance activities in a coordinated manner. In light of the scale of economy, adjacent road sections with similar maintenance needs should be maintained within a single project. Unfortunately, the idea of automatically combining adjacent sections into one large project has not been given serious attention in existing optimization models for pavement maintenance planning. In this paper, a new solution approach to pavement maintenance planning is proposed that utilizes the spatial structure of the road network. The road network is first partitioned into groups of adjacent sections, or maintenance projects, with similar maintenance needs. Then, in order to maximize system performance a Knapsack problem is solved to optimally allocated resources to selected maintenance projects.
  Authors: Gao, Lu; Zhang, Zhanmin
  Authors: Gao, Lu; Zhang, Zhanmin
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 662
  Paper Number: 13-2296
• Premature Cracking in Foamed Asphalt Pavement: Peru-Brazil Highway Case Study
  Abstract: The granular base stabilization with foamed bitumen is an alternative whose application is expanding by the increasing demand to preserve and minimize the use of virgin materials and reduce energy consumption. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the origin of premature cracks in the asphalt foaming of the road section I of Brazil Peru that began within hours of completion of the construction process and the evolution continued even when the surface treatment was placed. The scope of this work includes the evaluation and analysis of three critical components, the construction process, the mix design and structural capacity based on an extensive laboratory program and in situ evaluations. The total extension of the project is 470 miles, with foamed bitumen sections of 200 miles (the largest section of foamed bitumen built in South America) of which approximately 50 miles showed premature failure. The failures were mainly concentrated in areas with altitudes between 8,000 and 15,000 feet above sea level. Premature cracks were mainly due to a combination of poor curing process, low relative humidity, excessive fines content, and reduced structural capacity. It is recommended that similar projects should consider an early curing process, a quick surface seal, and adopt standards that consider at least a minimum required thickness, a tolerable range for fine contents, and a maximum allowable deflection.
  Authors: Menendez, Jose Rafael
  Authors: Menendez, Jose Rafael
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 555
  Paper Number: 13-2381
• Laboratory Test Methods for Polishing Asphalt Surfaces and Predicting Their Skid Resistance
  Abstract: In this paper, laboratory test methods reproducing phenomena affecting pavement skid resistance evolution are presented. Polishing tests are performed by Wehner/Schulze machine to simulate the polishing induced by traffic and the binder removal phase (typical for bituminous asphalt concrete). Accelerated ageing tests are performed by a weatherometer, operating conditions being adjusted according to local weather conditions, to simulate the binder ageing responsible for friction increase at early age. With respect to seasonal variations, a new test was developed to evaluate the effect of pollutants deposited on the road and the washing effect of rainfalls. Description of specimens and test procedures is given. Simulations are compared to observations to check their relevance.A model is developed to combine, in a physical way, laboratory test results and give place to a prediction of the friction-polishing duration curve. Conversions are done to predict actual skid resistance variation from laboratory polishing curve. Predictions are compared to road data and results are discussed.
  Authors: Do, Minh-Tan; Kane, Malal; Cerezo, Veronique
  Authors: Do, Minh-Tan; Kane, Malal; Cerezo, Veronique
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 517
  Paper Number: 13-2444
• Innovative Approach for Asphalt Pavement Compaction Monitoring Using Ground-Penetrating Radar
  Abstract: This paper demonstrates that ground penetrating radar (GPR) is an effective tool for quality assurance and quality control during flexible pavement compaction and after construction. Density is one of the most important properties of asphalt concrete layers in flexible pavement. It is critical to monitor the asphalt concrete density change during compaction. GPR is able to measure the asphalt mixture density non-destructively and rapidly. However, it is challenging to apply GPR method during compaction because of the unknown effect of roller-sprayed water on the GPR signal. This paper presents a study on the effect of surface water to the GPR signal when a 2-GHz antenna is used. It is found that the higher frequency components of the ultra-wide band signal are affected by the water, but the lower frequency components are not significantly influenced. The process comprises a band-pass filter with passing band from 200 MHz to 800 MHz, and extracting surface reflection amplitude after filtering. The extracted feature is found to be insensitive to the presence of surface water. Thus, this technology can be used effectively during the compaction process. Field data collected from two construction projects were used for validating this approach. The proposed approach was found to be feasible to monitor compaction status. The thickness and density profiles were also obtained by GPR after the construction. The density values from GPR were similar to those obtained by nuclear gauge.
  Authors: Shangguan, Pengcheng; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Leng, Zhen; Schmitt, Robert; Faheem, Ahmed Fatin
  Authors: Shangguan, Pengcheng; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Leng, Zhen; Schmitt, Robert; Faheem, Ahmed Fatin
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 207
  Paper Number: 13-2425
• Assessment of Pavement Cracking in Real Time Using Three-Dimensional Laser Technology and Advanced Image Analysis Algorithms
  Abstract: The analysis of pavement distress through cracking has provided major challenges for road authorities. Manual methods of analysis lack consistency due to the subjective nature of assessment and issues with image quality. Recent advances in image analysis and illumination have enabled automation of the data collection process, but have limitations in terms of data processing and classification. This paper compares two automated systems, RoadCrack and the Laser Crack Measurement System (LCMS), and recent advances in the integration of these technologies to provide real time cracking analysis.
  Authors: Warren, Garry
  Authors: Warren, Garry
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 475
  Paper Number: 13-2434
• Characterization of Crack Data from Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements on Lean Concrete Base
  Abstract: Extensive crack width and crack spacing data from recently constructed continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP) on lean concrete base in China were collected and statistically analyzed in this study. A total of 29 CRCP sections were observed which lead to 1171 crack data. The cracks were classified into six different types according to their shapes and patterns. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test shows that CRCP crack spacing follows a four-parameter Dagum distribution. ANOVA tests show that slab thickness does not have a significant impact on crack spacing. However, it has a significant impact on crack width. Measured data show the crack spacing is not correlated to crack width. In addition, validation result shows that Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) crack spacing model significantly underestimates the field mean crack spacing.
  Authors: Zhang, Xiao; Zhao, Duijia
  Authors: Zhang, Xiao; Zhao, Duijia
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 474
  Paper Number: 13-2517
• Experimental Study on Nanometer TiO2 Doped with Fe3+ for Purification Effect of Automobile Exhaust in the Tunnel
  Abstract: This paper presents an experimental approach to study purification effect of automobile exhaust. Sol-gel method was used to prepare Fe3+ modified Titanium dioxide (TiO2). Purification tests were conducted in a self-developed instrument to study catalytic effects of TiO2 doped with different contents of Fe3+ through degradation rate. The modification mechanism was studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD) scanning. Results showed that doping iron ion had improved the light catalytic performance of nanometer through inhibiting the growth of TiO2 grain size. TiO2 doped with 0.1% iron ion showed the best catalytic effect. The degradation rates of CO and CO2, HC and NOX were 6.9%, 7.9%, 2.3% and 14.9% higher than the unmodified TiO2 under ultraviolet light conditions, respectively., 0.6%, 0.6%, 2.3% and 8.2% higher than the unmodified under incandescent light conditions, respectively.
  Authors: Jianzhong, Pei
  Authors: Jianzhong, Pei
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 292
  Paper Number: 13-2563
• Effect of Moisture Content on Pavement Behavior in a Heavy-Vehicle Simulator Test
  Abstract: A flexible test road structure was built and tested in an Accelerated Pavement Test (APT) using a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS), to investigate its performance behaviour for a validation in a mechanistic performance scheme. In the test more than one million load cycles were applied, but approximately half way through the test, water was introduced to the pavement structure. The structure was therefore analysed in “moist” and “wet” state, before and after raising the water level. The increased water level had a significant effect on the responses of the structure with decreased resilient modulus and increased rate of accumulation of permanent deformation. Numerical analyses have been carried out to simulate the pavement responses, with the material properties based on field and laboratory testing. The observed accumulation of permanent deformation of the unbound layers was modelled using work hardening material models based on the numerical analyses. Generally good agreement was established between the measurements and calculations.
  Authors: Saevarsdottir, Thorbjorg; Erlingsson, Sigurdur
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 737
  Paper Number: 13-1191
• Development and Field Evaluation of a Texture Measurement System Based on Continuous Profiles from a 3D Scanning System
  Abstract: Pavement texture is a very important indicator of road serviceability. Pavement texture can be linked to the pavement skid resistance and traffic safety to the traveling public. Due to these important links, most transportation agencies across the nation require texture data for their Pavement Management System. Current pavement texture measurement methods use a high speed distance sensor or a 3D line scan device, both of which experience limitations on data stability. Problems caused by vehicle vibration, bad data from optical sensors and most importantly, speed dependency related to the sensor sampling and exposure time make the texture results either unreliable or inaccurate due to severe errors. This paper reports a study on the influence of speed on network level texture data collection and the development of a high speed and high precision 3D texture system. The experiment confirmed that improper selection of a sensor with a large exposure time will suffer significant speed dependency on measured texture data. The system developed in this study adopted a very small exposure time for each sampling and can produce accurate texture data largely independent from vehicle speed.
  Authors: Huang, Yaxiong; Copenhaver, Todd; Hempel, Phillip; Mikhail, Magdy
  Authors: Huang, Yaxiong; Copenhaver, Todd; Hempel, Phillip; Mikhail, Magdy
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 241
  Paper Number: 13-2615
• Selection of Design Parameters for Construction of a Surrogate Model for the MEPDG
  Abstract: The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ (AASHTO) Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) is the most widely utilized M-E design procedure in the U.S. The MEPDG incorporates extensive climatic and empirical performance data. Inclusion of such extensive data hinders the computational efficiency of design with the MEPDG and likely includes design parameters of little significance to pavement performance. Construction of a surrogate model that emulates the behavior of the MEPDG can be utilized to reduce computational expense and is valuable in any situation where large numbers of evaluations are required. Development of a surrogate improves efficiency, but requires selection of a reduced quantity of design parameters compared to the MEPDG model that it is meant to emulate. This paper includes investigation of the required quantity of input parameters necessary to accurately imitate the MEPDG design procedure. This investigation will provide a tool for sensitivity analysis for the MEPDG. The objective of this paper is to develop a variable selection process for sensitivity analysis and construction of a surrogate model for the Level 1 MEPDG design procedure utilizing the DARWin-ME design software. Investigation of the importance of input variables is investigated for 3 distinct climate regions to examine the impact of climatic data on the relative significance of input variables. Sensitivity analysis will provide insight to the most significant design information for Level 1 analyses. Further, construction and verification of a surrogate model for a Level 1 MEPDG analysis incorporating the information obtained from the selection process is presented.
  Authors: Retherford, Jennifer Q; McDonald, Mark
  Authors: Retherford, Jennifer Q; McDonald, Mark
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 239
  Paper Number: 13-2623
• Development of an Asphalt Pavement Distress Evaluation Method forFreeways in China
  Abstract: Reasonable evaluation of the asphalt pavement distresses condition is a very important part of the pavement management system. The objective of this research is to develop an effective method to evaluate asphalt pavement distress condition in China. Three single evaluation indexes were proposed, namely the Transverse Cracking Evaluation Index (TCEI), Pavement Patching Condition Index (PPCI), and Pavement Surface Distress Condition Index (PSCI), to assessthe critical properties of asphalt pavement distresses. The pavement distress condition index (PDCI) was then developed as a general evaluation index by using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The feasibility of this evaluating method was validated using the field distress data collected from Ning Hang freeway and Fen Guan freeway in Jiangsu Province, China. The results showed that the PDCI can reasonably represent the distress condition in asphalt pavements. The index value can be well correlated with the actual condition of the in-place pavement. Therefore, a scientific and rational method has been established to evaluate Chinese asphalt pavement distress condition.
  Authors: Zhou, Lan; Ni, Fujian; Leng, Zhen
  Authors: Zhou, Lan; Ni, Fujian; Leng, Zhen
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 241
  Paper Number: 13-2600
• Case Study for Evaluating Benefits of Pavement Research: Final Results
  Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to describe a retrospective evaluation of heavy duty pavement innovations that were developed through research for a major rehabilitation project in California. The paper examines the performance benefits of the innovations and analyses the economic benefits of the research that resulted from the implementation of innovative pavement designs innovations. Performance benefits are presented through a brief description of the rehabilitation project, background on development of a long Life Pavement Rehabilitation innovation, and design requirements that limited permanent deformation (rutting) within the first five years of service. Results from field measurements confirm the innovative pavements met this performance criterion. Economic benefits of the research which resulted from the development and implementation of the innovative pavements are presented. The paper is a follow-up publication on the subject and contains the latest and final results on the pilot study to quantify direct benefits stemming from APT testing. It incorporates cost-benefit analysis including agency with- and without road-user costs and study the influence of the discount rate in net present value calculations. As expected, road-user costs have a significant influence on the cost-benefit calculations especially in the case of a heavily congested freeway. Results from the cost-benefit analysis show positive cost savings and benefit-cost ratios. Results reported in this paper show clear performance benefits from the innovations, indicate positive economic benefits from the research that led to innovations.
  Authors: du Plessis, Louw; Nokes, William; Burmas, Nicholas; Holland, T. Joseph; Harvey, John
  Authors: du Plessis, Louw; Nokes, William; Burmas, Nicholas; Holland, T. Joseph; Harvey, John
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 737
  Paper Number: 13-2604
• An Investigation in the Influence of Contact Angle on Soil Water Characteristic Curve with a Modified Capillary Rise Method
  Abstract: Contact angle quantifies the physicochemical interactions at the liquid-solid interface and is therefore critical to many physical processes involving the interaction of soil and water. In geotechnical engineering, such interactions are the basis for the formulation of the Soil Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC). However, the role of contact angle in SWCCs has not been adequately recognized. This paper reports a comprehensive study on applying Capillary Rise Method (CRM) to measure the contact angles of soils. Analytical solutions to two forms of the Lucas-Washburn equation were presented to provide the theoretical basis for applying CRM to soils. The disadvantages of conventional CRM analyses were demonstrated with experiments. A modified CRM was proposed based on an analytical solution to a more complicated form of the Lucas-Washburn equation. This modified CRM exhibited reliable performance on numerous specimens made of a subgrade soil and a silicon dioxide sand. Testing procedures were designed and strictly followed, and innovative apparatuses for the preparation, transport, and accommodation of soil specimens were fabricated to ensure repeatability. For the modified CRM, experiment results for virgin specimens demonstrated good repeatability; while for sieved soils, clear trends were observed in the variations of contact angle with respect to pore size. Contact angles much greater than zero were observed for all of the tested specimens which contradicts the assumption of perfect wettability in previous SWCC studies. In addition, it was demonstrated that neglecting the variations of contact angles with respect to pore radius could result in significant errors in the SWCC construction.
  Authors: Liu, Zhen; Yu, Xiong; Wan, Lin
  Authors: Liu, Zhen; Yu, Xiong; Wan, Lin
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 205
  Paper Number: 13-2652
• Use of Precipitation Records in Drainage Design of Porous Asphalt Surface Layer
  Abstract: Precipitation, including rain and snow, in general has a negative effect on road system efficiency and safety. Porous asphalt (PA) layer, with its high permeability and its capacity to drain water from the surface, can largely mitigate this impact. The performance of PA surface layer should meet drainage requirements that depend on the local weather type and design targets of safety/efficiency levels. This paper proposed a method for incorporating local weather records into PA layer design. As hydrologic constructions are based on intensity duration frequency (IDF) curves, this paper discusses the use of the same method for designing PA layers. As the exposure time of pavement to wet weather may be more directly related to road accidents and efficiency, the method of wet exposure is introduced as well. An IDF versus wet exposure plot shows these two parameters are not correlated; thus the two parameters cannot be used interchangeably.The IDF curves were developed based on extreme weather experienced across a number of years. However, no evidence shows the extreme weather is the prevalent concern of pavement design. The design based on IDF criteria leads to a low invest/outcome ratio. For pavement, the total time of exposure to adverse precipitation appears to be more important. The wet exposure method can be improved to provide exposure times for the different designs and fulfill PA thickness design requirements based on local weather and safety/efficiency expectation.
  Authors: Tang, Lijie; Flintsch, Gerardo W.
  Authors: Tang, Lijie; Flintsch, Gerardo W.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 239
  Paper Number: 13-2720
• Three-Dimensional Finite Element Modeling of Instrumented Airport Runway Pavement Responses
  Abstract: The objective of this paper is to analyze runway pavement responses under moving aircraft tire loading using a developed three-dimensional (3-D) finite element (FE) model. The instrumented runway at Cagliari-Elmas airport (Sardegna, Italy) was modeled in the analysis, which consists of a 350-mm asphalt layer, a 400-mm granular base layer, and subgrade. The FE model characterized the asphalt layer as a linear viscoelastic material, and two interface bonding conditions between asphalt layers (full bonding and partial debonding) were used in the analysis. The aircraft tire loading was simulated using a nontraditional loading assumption that represents the non-uniform distribution of tire contact stresses along contact length and width under five ribs of an aircraft tire. Analysis results show that traditional loading assumption that assumes uniform contact stresses at the tire-pavement interface underestimates the critical tensile and shear strains in the asphalt layer. In particular, the relatively high contact stresses at tire edge ribs under heavy aircraft loading cause significant shear stresses at the pavement near-surface. The pavement responses under various loading conditions (aircraft type, wheel load, and speed) were calculated, and the critical responses were identified. Good agreements were achieved when the calculated pavement responses (vertical pressure and horizontal strain) at various locations were compared to the measured responses from field instrumentation. The model results show that partial debonding between asphalt layers causes much greater tensile strains at the bottom of the whole asphalt layer.
  Authors: Wang, Hao; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Portas, Silvia; Coni, Mauro
  Authors: Wang, Hao; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Portas, Silvia; Coni, Mauro
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 737
  Paper Number: 13-2732
• A Physically Based Equation for Phase Composition Curve of Frozen Soils
  Abstract: The relationship between unfrozen water content (or saturation in freezing/thawing) and temperature, which is referred to as the phase composition curve in frozen soils, is a fundamental relationship in cold regions engineering. There have been only empirical equations for this relationship due to the lack of a physical basis. This study investigated the mechanisms underlying the phase composition curve. A detailed physical basis was established based on the soil freezing characteristic curve, the Clapeyron equation, and the Bundle of Cylindrical Capillary (BCC) model. Based on this physical basis, a closed-form equation was developed for the formulation and prediction of this curve. This physically-based equation quantifies the unique correlation between saturation and temperature in frozen soils and takes various factors into account, such as the soil saturation under unfrozen conditions and the lowest temperature used in experiments. The equation was validated with phase composition data measured using a thermal-TDR sensor. In addition, the flexibility of the equation, and its excellent applicability in various soils with a wide range of properties, in large temperature ranges, and in both freezing and thawing processes (hysteresis) were proven with reported data.
  Authors: Liu, Zhen; Yu, Xiong
  Authors: Liu, Zhen; Yu, Xiong
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 246
  Paper Number: 13-2700
• Improving Network Condition with Preventive Maintenance: Pavement Management System Case Study in Christiansburg, Virginia
  Abstract: This paper discusses the development of a pavement management system (PMS) for the Town of Christiansburg VA, and the use of pavement management applications to demonstrate the effectiveness of implementing preventive maintenance on their street network. Students at Virginia Tech worked with personnel from the Town of Christiansburg to gather inventory data and past work history on all of the pavements within the town’s network. First, the network was developed by importing existing GIS data into commercially available PMS software. The expected pavement performance was then modeled using age data along with condition information gathered during a survey of the network. The condition data, age data and performance data were all combined to develop several maintenance and rehabilitation scenarios for the pavement network. The effect of different budget scenarios on the weighted average condition of the network over a 20 year analysis period was determined both when preventive maintenance was incorporated and when only major rehabilitation (e.g. overlays) was conducted. The results indicated that implementing a PMS in the Town of Christiansburg can greatly support the town engineers in determining the optimal work types and work scenarios for long-term budgeting and planning. Furthermore, it was found that implementing a preventive maintenance strategy into the work conducted on the network has the potential to significantly reduce the cost of maintaining the network at a high condition rating.
  Authors: Hosten, Akyiaa Makeda; Bryce, James; Priddy, Lucy; Flintsch, Gerardo W.; de León Izeppi, Edgar David; Nelson, Wayne
  Authors: Hosten, Akyiaa Makeda; Bryce, James; Priddy, Lucy; Flintsch, Gerardo W.; de León Izeppi, Edgar David; Nelson, Wayne
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 256
  Paper Number: 13-2791
• Numerical Analysis of Geocell-Reinforced Aggregate and Ballast Overlying Soft Clay Subgrade
  Abstract: Over the past several decades the geotechnical engineers have experimented with many forms of reinforcement techniques for construction of embankments, retaining walls, pavements and foundations where in geotextiles and geogrids were extensively used. Geocells is one of the recently found applications of reinforcement technique, which provides a three dimensional confinement to the infill material. Although the amount of research conducted on sand, clay and layered soil subgrades has been extensive, limited research has been conducted on the aggregates reinforced with geocells. This paper presents a study the behavior of geocell reinforcement under monotonically loaded plane strain plate on a thin layer of aggregates of size ranging from 20 to 75mm overlying soft clay subgrade. Results of a series of laboratory model tests on an unreinforced and geocell reinforced aggregate overlying soft clay subgrade prepared in a test tank of dimensions 700mmx300mmx700mm are presented. In addition to the laboratory model tests, the model tests were simulated using a finite difference code to predict the behavior of geocell reinforced aggregate. The numerical simulations are compared with the experimental results. The numerical and experimental results manifested the importance that the geocell reinforcement has a significant effect on the aggregate behavior. The results also depicted that the stiffness of underlying soft clay subgrade has a significant influence on the geocell-aggregate composite material in redistributing the loading system.
  Authors: Saride, Sireesh; Sitharam, T. G.; Puppala, Anand J.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 623
  Paper Number: 13-3057
• Assessment of Effects of Pier Configurations on Flow Pattern and Scour: Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling Approach
  Abstract: Flow past piers with different configurations are modeled using three dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method. The effects induced by different cross-sectional shapes (circular, square, diamond and lenticular), different aspect ratios and different attack angles are studied. The flow patterns including the horseshoe vortex, wake vortex and the vertical flow in front of the pier are analyzed for each configuration; the maximum values of bed shear stress and its overall distribution patterns around the piers with different configurations are also focused on for analysis. It is founded that pier shapes affect the flow pattern bed shear stress distribution pattern dramatically; aspect ratio does not affect the maximum shear stress and the overall pattern of the shear stress whereas it does influence the interaction between the vortex structures; the effect of attack angle is obvious and the degree of such influence also depends on the aspect ratio. An expression based on the concept of effective width is proposed to evaluate the combination effect of the aspect ratio and the attack angle on the maximum shear stress. The findings in this project are also related to the scour patterns around piers to gain some insights into the scour mechanism; possible applications of the CFD approach into practical engineering areas are also discussed, such as in initial scour rate estimation for bridge risk analysis and design guidance for bridge scour countermeasures and monitoring plans.
  Authors: Tao, Junliang; Gao, Quan; Yu, Xiong
  Authors: Tao, Junliang; Gao, Quan; Yu, Xiong
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Design; Hydraulics and Hydrology; Pavements
  Session: 728
  Paper Number: 13-2840
• Using Viscosity at Variable Shear Rates to Evaluate Asphalt Emulsion Sprayability and Drainout Characteristics in Chip Seals
  Abstract: Streaking and drain-out are two common early chip seal failures related to the viscosity of the asphalt emulsion used. An emulsion with a high viscosity at spraying could result in streaking, while another with a low viscosity after spraying could drain off the road surface under gravity. Some emulsions also tend to show reduction in viscosity during handling, thus aggravating the potential for drain-out. The Saybolt-Furol Viscometer (SFV) (ASTM D7496) is currently used to characterize the viscosity of asphalt emulsions. However, the SFV cannot be operated under varying shear rate conditions as experienced by emulsions at different stages. In this paper, a new test procedure for evaluating sprayability, drain-out, and recovery kinetics of emulsions by the use of a rotational viscometer is presented. The test procedure allows for emulsions to be tested at a higher shear rate when evaluating sprayability and low shear rate when evaluating drain-out. Twelve emulsions of different grades and chemistries were tested. The results showed that the proposed test procedure is sensitive to emulsion chemistry, grade and testing temperature. Sprayability, drain-out and recovery kinetics were found to be significantly affected by emulsion chemistry and testing temperature. It is recommended that this variable shear-rate viscosity protocol be used as a basis for replacing the SFV test as a better performance related test method. Specification criteria can be easily developed and implemented since rotational viscometers are widely available in the industry, and there is a wealth of experience with various emulsions in the field.
  Authors: Johannes, Petrina Tutumina; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Authors: Johannes, Petrina Tutumina; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-2805
• Framework for Numerical Simulation of Bridge Scour Focusing on Improvements of Sediment Transport Models
  Abstract: Bridge scour is a complicated process involving the interactions between flow and bridge piers and between flow and bed sediment. The existing numerical studies often coupled different sediment transport models to a turbulence flow model to simulate the scour process. The influence of the turbulence fluctuation and the lift force are not incorporated in the traditional sediment models. In this paper, we proposed a framework to evaluate the performances of different sediment transport models. Specifically, the sediment transport equations are given an in-depth study and a new modification method to the sediment models to include the above mentioned influences was proposed based on a comprehensive review. In this framework, the flow domain will be solved using a URANS approach with a k-? turbulence closure model; the sediment transport models (traditional and modified) will be coupled with the flow domain using the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian method.
  Authors: Tao, Junliang; Yu, Xiong
  Authors: Tao, Junliang; Yu, Xiong
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Design; Hydraulics and Hydrology; Pavements
  Session: 728
  Paper Number: 13-2852
• Probabilistically Characterizing Uncertain Inputs in Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of Pavements
  Abstract: Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is an important tool to evaluate the merits of alternative investments. Inevitably, inputs for an LCCA are subject to a high level of uncertainty both in the short-term and long-term. Under its current implementation in the field, however, LCCA inputs are treated as static, deterministic values. Conducting such an analysis, although computationally simpler, hides the underlying uncertainty of the inputs by only considering a few possible permutations, which could potentially lead a decision-maker to the incorrect pavement selection. One methodology that has gained traction the past decade is to describe uncertain parameters probabilistically, allowing the analysis to consider a range of possible outcomes. Although this methodology is recommended by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), practitioners still generally conduct deterministic LCCAs. One of the major reasons is that further research must be conducted to statistically characterize uncertainty for input parameters. This research attempts to build upon previous work by probabilistically characterizing several input parameters with and without readily available empirical data. Having characterized uncertainty and variability in the LCCA of pavements, the methodology presented is applied to a case study to determine whether the pavement selection would change by treating parameters probabilistically. The results of the analysis showed the pavement selection could change by conducting a probabilistic LCCA and are dependent upon the risk-perspective of the decision-maker.
  Authors: Swei, Omar; Gregory, Jeremy; Kirchain, Randolph
  Authors: Swei, Omar; Gregory, Jeremy; Kirchain, Randolph
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-2858
• Evaluating Sustainability of Face Bricks for Road and Airfield Pavements
  Abstract: The U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center evaluated the feasibility of using face bricks as an alternative to concrete or asphalt paving for lightweight and heavyweight vehicle traffic. Paving materials and equipment can be scarce in expeditionary environments, so the use of bricks recycled from existing infrastructure may provide a local resource for constructing pavements suitable for meeting the military’s mission requirements. The field testing documented in this paper follows a laboratory study in which a series of tests, including compressive strength, absorption, Los Angeles abrasion, and specific gravity, were conducted on selected face bricks and brick pavers. The success of the laboratory testing led to the full-scale field testing and evaluation of the face and paver bricks trafficked with a commercial dump truck load of approximately 54,000 lb (24 494 kg) and then trafficked with a 45,000-lb (20 412-kg) single-wheel C-17 aircraft load cart. The field testing indicated brick-paved roads constructed with a moderately high-strength base are capable of sustaining more than 10,000 passes of truck traffic without failure. The same brick-paved roads were not capable of withstanding C-17 aircraft traffic. Further results from the evaluation are presented and include material characterization test data, rut depth measurements, wheel path and cross-section profile measurements, instrumentation response data, and forensic assessments. Recommendations for continuing the study through the use of additional full-scale test sections are also provided.
  Authors: Bell, Haley P.; Edwards, Lulu
  Authors: Bell, Haley P.; Edwards, Lulu
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Environment; Pavements
  Session: 705
  Paper Number: 13-2905
• Evaluating Worst-First and Benefit-Cost Analysis Approaches for Prioritizing Infrastructure Maintenance and Rehabilitation Activities under Various Budgetary Scenarios
  Abstract: Infrastructure maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) projects are commonly prioritized using the worst-first (W-F) and benefit-cost analysis (BCA) approaches. While many acknowledge the inherent disadvantages of the W-F approach over the BCA approach, many transportation and public works agencies still use the W-F approach. This paper compares the W-F and BCA approaches in terms of their impact on network condition (specifically, lane-miles in good condition and backlog) under various budgetary scenarios. These comparisons are motivated by the premise that under certain budget allocation and availability scenarios, the shortcomings of the W-F approach may be abated. The analysis presented in this paper uses highway pavement network data from the Bryan district of the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT). Bryan district is located in east central Texas (wet-warm climate and generally poor subgrade). In 2011, this network consisted of approximately 3,178 centerline miles. The results suggest that when maintenance and rehabilitation share a single combined budget, the W-F approach is dramatically less effective than the BCA approach in improving the network condition and reducing backlog. However, when the M&R budget is divided into two separate budgets (one for maintenance and one for rehabilitation), the disadvantages of the W-F approach diminish.
  Authors: Menendez, Jose Rafael; Zabihi, Salar; Narciso, Paul John Ross; Gharaibeh, Nasir G.
  Authors: Menendez, Jose Rafael; Zabihi, Salar; Narciso, Paul John Ross; Gharaibeh, Nasir G.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 212
  Paper Number: 13-2895
• Development of Roughness Models Using Alberta Transportation’s Pavement Management System
  Abstract: Alberta Transportation (AT) conducts annual automated roughness measurements on Alberta’s core highway network. The measures are used to classify the physical conditions of each pavement segment in the Pavement Management System (PMS) and to establish rehabilitation and preservation strategies for the year. Currently, no prediction model is available to correlate climatic, mechanistic and structural characteristics of the pavement to roughness development for Alberta’s network. Existing models incorporated in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) and Highway Development and Management Tool (HDM) comprise comprehensive and detailed distress records. Such data record is not currently available for Alberta, so existing models cannot be calibrated for local conditions. The present study focuses on identifying significant variables to roughness development for Alberta’s highway network. In this study, the data available in the PMS is used to develop two new prediction models for the International Roughness Index (IRI): one for new, and the other for straight overlaid asphalt concrete (AC) sections with a granular base. Regression analysis conducted in the study revealed that variables such as age, traffic, percent fines in the subgrade, rut depth and cracking are most significant to IRI for the new AC sections with GBS, and that variables such as age, freezing index (FI), base and overlay thickness and rut depth are most significant to IRI for overlaid sections. The model for new AC sections was validated using data from the General Pavement Section (GPS)-1 in the Long Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) database located in the provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan in Western Canada.
  Authors: Nassiri, Somayeh; Shafiee, Mohammad Hussein; Bayat, Alireza
  Authors: Nassiri, Somayeh; Shafiee, Mohammad Hussein; Bayat, Alireza
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-2897
• Effects of Curing and Oxidative Aging on Raveling in Emulsion Chip Seals
  Abstract: Although chip seals have a proven history of performance, several distresses are commonly encountered in the field. The most common distresses in chip seals are flushing or bleeding and aggregate loss from the top layer (i.e., raveling). Raveling is not restricted to the early life of the chip seal, and may continue to occur throughout the service life. The current state of knowledge and testing with regard to the mechanisms governing raveling in chip seals does not sufficiently account for the effects of in-service emulsion-aggregate bond maturation and oxidative aging on chip loss over the expected service life of the chip seal. It is hypothesized that emulsion-aggregate adhesion controls the early raveling process, while the residual asphalt binder rheological properties and aggregate embedment in the emulsion all contribute to later reveling in chip seals. Raveling of chip seals subjected to varying degrees of time-temperature conditioning was evaluated to account for different chemical and physical interactions at the aggregate-asphalt interface. Testing results showed that the rate of in service raveling is dependent on the curing process and subsequent in-service oxidative aging as the adhesive and cohesive forces at the emulsion-aggregate interface change. The initial bond maturation results in a decreased rate of chip loss, while the in-service oxidative aging of the asphalt emulsion leads to a higher aggregate loss as a result of the emulsion’s strain intolerance and inability to relax stresses induced by traffic.
  Authors: Moraes, Raquel; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Authors: Moraes, Raquel; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-2758
• Thermoelectric Energy-Harvesting System Design Across Pavement Structure
  Abstract: The aging infrastructure requires a proactive strategy to ensure their functionality and performance. Innovative sensors are needed to develop infrastructures that are intelligent and durable. A power supply strategy is among the crucial components to reduce the instrument cost and to ensure the long term function of these embedded sensors. This paper describes the design of an energy harvest system that can be installed on the surface of pavements. The system will collect energy from the temperature difference between the pavement surface and the subgrade soil. The electronic circuit was designed to manage the voltage and power output, and store the energy for long term monitoring applications. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of the system. This presents an innovative strategy for power supply in long term monitoring of pavement performance.
  Authors: Yu, Xiong; Wu, Guangxi
  Authors: Yu, Xiong; Wu, Guangxi
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 465
  Paper Number: 13-2829
• New Developments in Selecting Chemical Treatments for Gravel Roads
  Abstract: There is an increasing need and interest in the use of chemical treatments to reduce maintenance and gravel replacement on gravel roads. However, choice of the most appropriate additive is difficult because of the proprietary nature of many of the additives available. This paper offers an updated selection guide, which is based on the practitioner understanding the roads that require treatment in terms of traffic, climate, geometry, and materials; understanding additive types and categories; and understanding the need to request potential vendors to categorize their additives accordingly. Based on the information collected, appropriate additive categories and if applicable, sub-categories, can be selected from two charts. The selection can be refined by evaluating expected performance using prediction charts that are based on material properties determined from simple, inexpensive laboratory tests.
  Authors: Jones, David
  Authors: Jones, David
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 740
  Paper Number: 13-2957
• Recovery and Laboratory Testing of Asphalt Emulsion Residue: Application of Simple Aging Test and 4-mm Dynamic Shear Rheometry
  Abstract: ABSTRACTThis study involves application of two new test methods to the recovery of asphalt emulsion residue, long-term oxidative aging of the residue, and mechanical testing of the unaged and aged residue to determine low and intermediate temperature rheological properties. The two new methods are: (1) the simple aging test (SAT) which is a thin-film (300 µm) oxidative aging test, and (2) a dynamic shear rheometry (DSR) technique (commonly referred to as 4mm DSR) that allows testing to -40°C, requires only ~ 25 mg, and includes a correction for instrument compliance. Three polymer modified emulsions are recovered by two methods: (1) ASTM D7497 - Method B, and (2) using a SAT plate. Both methods use the same evaporative technique to recover the residue (6 hours at 60°C in a forced draft oven). The rheological properties (m-value, G* sin ä, and ductility) of the recovered emulsion residues by both methods are reported as well as the rheological properties of the aged emulsion using the SAT. The rheological properties of the unaged emulsion residues recovered by both methods are roughly equivalent.
  Authors: Farrar, Michael J.; Salmans, Stephen L.; Planche, Jean-Pascal
  Authors: Farrar, Michael J.; Salmans, Stephen L.; Planche, Jean-Pascal
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-2982
• Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves Scanning to Identify Debonding Conditions Between Hot-Mix Asphalt Layers in Pavements
  Abstract: This paper presents a recently developed system used for condition assessment of hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements to detect debonding between layers of HMA pavements. The study was partly funded by the SHRP2 (R06D) research project titled “Nondestructive Testing to Identify Delaminations between HMA Layers” through the National Center for Asphalt Technologies (NCAT). The objective of the study was to develop a reliable technique to determine internal condition of HMA pavements including debonding conditions between each layer. An Impact Echo and Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves Scanner (IE/SASW Scanner) prototype (originally developed for condition assessment of bridge decks) with up to three pairs of transducer wheels using Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves scanning was employed in this project. This paper includes background of the development of the IE/SASW Scanner and a case study performed on HMA pavements of known conditions at the NCAT Pavement Test Track. The research investigation was performed as a “blind” study, with the actual known pavement conditions revealed to the research team after initial data analysis and reporting of detected delamination conditions was completed.
  Authors: Tinkey, Yajai; Miller, Patrick K.; Olson, Larry Duane; Heitzman, Michael
  Authors: Tinkey, Yajai; Miller, Patrick K.; Olson, Larry Duane; Heitzman, Michael
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 260
  Paper Number: 13-2990
• Automated Measurement and Control of Slump and Water Content for Concrete Quality Assurance
  Abstract: This paper presents an analysis of data on 8,226 loads of ready mixed concrete as measured by truck-mounted, automated slump management equipment. This equipment measures and controls slump and water content from batching to final discharge, and also records concrete temperature, admixture use, drum rotation speed and number of revolutions, and time. The data indicate that the use of this equipment resulted in concrete arriving at the jobsite at the correct slump for discharge, reduced variability in slump at discharge, and more consistent mixing after loading. Data also showed that water additions can be made, uniformly mixed, and fully documented while the truck is in transit. The paper describes how the documentation and control provided by such equipment can be part of a quality assurance program.
  Authors: Koehler, Eric
  Authors: Koehler, Eric
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 427
  Paper Number: 13-3031
• Using Onboard Sound Intensity Measurements to Interpret Traffic Noise Modeling Results
  Abstract: With the evaluation of noise impacts and noise abatement under the requirements of 23CFR772, “Procedures for Abatement of Highway Traffic Noise,” traffic noise levels are calculated using the Federal Highway Administration’s Traffic Noise Model (TNM). TNM calculates traffic noise levels based on the geometry of the site and traffic volumes, mix, and speeds. TNM does not currently account for pavement type or condition, atypical vehicle noise populations, transparent shielding, reflections, or meteorological conditions. For these reasons, noise measurements are conducted and traffic noise model adjustments and calibration factors are developed. For several highway studies recently conducted in California, On-Board Sound Intensity (OBSI) measurements were made concurrent to the traditional wayside noise measurements along the length of the freeway to be studied in an effort to account for the existing pavement type and condition of the freeway. Use of OBSI data, when compared to the calculated TNM Average pavement OBSI level, has helped to interpret calibration factors that had been developed in TNM based on standard modeling practices. This paper describes how OBSI can be used as a supplementary tool to help interpret calibration factors developed for a TNM model.
  Authors: Lodico, Dana M.; Donavan, Paul
  Authors: Lodico, Dana M.; Donavan, Paul
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 814
  Paper Number: 13-3058
• Accelerated Damage to Low-Volume Highways due to Natural Gas Well-Drilling Activity in Arkansas
  Abstract: Natural gas drilling activity began in 2006 within the Fayetteville Shale Play Area (FSPA), a 7,400 square mile (19,166 square kilometer) area in north central Arkansas. The FSPA is located mainly within 10 Arkansas counties and contains approximately 2,580 miles (4,152 kilometers) of highways, with 1,338 miles (2,153 kilometers) of those considered lower volume highways (LVH). More than 230 miles (370 kilometers) of highways in the FSPA were also weight-restricted routes due to their lack of structural strength. By 2007, over 1,100 gas wells were being developed. By 2010, the number of active wells had grown to 3,575.This drilling activity led to the rapid deterioration of many of the lower volume state highways that were never designed to endure these types of loadings. The Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (AHTD) began to collect data and document the increase in truck traffic and the resulting pavement damage in late 2007 as the cost to maintain these routes skyrocketed and considerable public complaints were voiced.AHTD monitored and collected pavement performance information in 2008, 2009 and 2010 on 28 lower volume highway sections. Since these sections endured truck traffic loadings easily exceeding the expected 20-year accumulated traffic loadings in just a few months, the AHTD was able to document the progression of pavement damage over these routes and report these findings to the Arkansas Highway Commission.
  Authors: Wright-Kehner, Elisha; Meadors, Alan
  Authors: Wright-Kehner, Elisha; Meadors, Alan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Data and Information Technology; Energy; Pavements
  Session: 534
  Paper Number: 13-3099
• Improvements of Full-Depth Repair Practices for CRCP Distresses
  Abstract: The Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) has by far the most continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) lane miles in the nation and sections as old as 50 years are still in service. Having served much longer than intended, some sections are showing distresses. FDR (full depth repair) is one of the methods to repair CRCP distresses in Texas. Over the years, various FDR methods have been used and the effectiveness of each method has varied. The most widely used FDR method – where full-depth cut is made at a minimum of1.5 ft (0.46 m) inside the transverse repair boundaries and partial-depth cut at repair boundaries, with the concrete in between removed to expose longitudinal steel – has inherent disadvantages, with longer repair time required being the primary disadvantage. Full-depth cut FDR method – where full-depth cut is made at repair boundaries with longitudinal tiebars epoxy grouted into the existing concrete – has advantages over other methods, one of which is the fast operations, minimizing the time of roadway closure. Since CRCP is normally utilized at high traffic volume areas, the maximum time allowed for the FDR operation in TxDOT is normally limited to nine hours, which makes the full-depth cut method the only acceptable repair method. Factors affecting the effectiveness of the full-depth cut method were investigated by laboratory testing and field evaluations. The way epoxy is injected, the ability to keep the epoxy in the holes after tiebars are inserted, restoring base support, and embedded length of tiebar were the most important variables affecting the performance of FDR. Based on the research findings, recommendations were made to revise specifications for FDR and epoxy materials, and it is expected that the implementation will result in improved FDR performance of CRCP.
  Authors: Ryu, Sung Woo; Choi, Pangil; Choi, Seongcheol; Won, Moon
  Authors: Ryu, Sung Woo; Choi, Pangil; Choi, Seongcheol; Won, Moon
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 441
  Paper Number: 13-3103
• Logistic Regression Model to Select and Prioritize Network-Level Project Sections for Sustainable Pavement Management in Texas
  Abstract: In recent years, the increasing gap between available funding and preservation needs influences district pavement engineers to select and prioritize projects for the effective use of funding. However, the current practice of project selection is often made after an informal assessment, based on local conditions and local district engineers’ experience, in the absence of a statewide systematic process. The primary objective of this study is to determine network-level project sections for effective sustainable pavement management using logistic regression analysis. A huge volume of inventory data documented from pavement management information systems (PMIS) was used to develop the logistic regression (LR) model for selecting candidate sections. The LR model was subsequently validated using a single 50-50 split sample method. The findings of this study will assist the Austin district in selecting and evaluating candidate projects. Furthermore, the study will ultimately contribute to efficiency improvement in project selection and prioritization by reducing not only the amount of time necessary to review the District PMIS data to identify project candidates, but also the potential for human error.
  Authors: Kim, Dae Young; Kim, Moo Yeon; Chi, Seokho; Arellano, Mike; Murphy, Mike
  Authors: Kim, Dae Young; Kim, Moo Yeon; Chi, Seokho; Arellano, Mike; Murphy, Mike
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 256
  Paper Number: 13-3110
• Mechanistic Model for Prediction of Rutting in Road Built on Shakedown Theory
  Abstract: Rutting in roads is an important factor that affects the performance of a road. A model used to predict future rutting for different design alternatives is important to minimize the investment cost and LCC. In the project “Pavement Performance Models: Part 2, Project Level”, and with research results from the VTT, a new road design model, especially used to predict future rutting, has been developed and partly validated in this project.The prediction model is grounded on the Shakedown Theory, which means that it models both the compaction phase and the creep phase of the permanent deformation. The model is also grounded on some interesting test results from triaxial tests, which show that the most important reason for permanent deformation in an unbound friction material is the deviatory stress level in the material.For this model, it is possible to measure parameters, which are mechanistically and have physical correct properties, which is easy to evaluate. It is also possible to find a more understandable and realistic Shakedown Limit, with this approach.
  Authors: Huvstig, Anders Bertil; Winnerholt, Tomas
  Authors: Huvstig, Anders Bertil; Winnerholt, Tomas
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 367
  Paper Number: 13-3136
• Analysis of Pavement Surface Distress Condition on Major Corridors in New Mexico
  Abstract: Road and highway networks, as a part of the transportation infrastructure, play an indispensable role in the local economy and community development. The high-quality pavement serviceability of these networks is essential to ensure safe, cost-effective, daily traffic operations. In-depth analyses of wide-range pavement surface condition data are necessary inputs for optimal pavement design and maintenance, traffic safety enhancement, and sustainable traffic infrastructure system development. This study aims to investigate various pavement condition performance measurements and their correlations, and better understand temporal-spatial characteristics of roadway surface distresses based on the pavement distress condition data collected by the New Mexico Department of Transportation (NMDOT) from 2006 to 2009. Eight major corridors across various urban and rural areas were selected for analyzing pavement surface distress conditions and discovering their intrinsic characteristics and patterns across both temporal and spatial domains in New Mexico. The analyses results show there are not significant correlations among different surface distress condition measurements at the significant level of p=0.05, implying the rationality of the current pavement condition performance measurements used by the state transportation agencies. The regression models were established and time series analyses were performed for extracting temporal and spatial patterns of distress rate (DR) data. The model results illustrate strong correlations of the DR data on the same route between two consecutive years, which can be partially characterized by a Markov chain process. GIS-based spatial investigations also show unique features of pavement condition deterioration attributed to diverse geometric characteristics and traffic conditions, such as vehicle compositions and volumes, etc. in urban and rural areas. The research findings are helpful to better understand the characteristics of pavement distress conditions and optimize traffic infrastructure design and maintenance.
  Authors: Chen, Cong; Zhang`, Su; Zhang, Guohui; Bogus, Susan; Valentin, Vanessa
  Authors: Chen, Cong; Zhang`, Su; Zhang, Guohui; Bogus, Susan; Valentin, Vanessa
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 241
  Paper Number: 13-3155
• Aerial Photograph-based Pavement Surface Distress Detection and Assessment
  Abstract: The New Mexico Department of Transportation (NMDOT) has used a manual, visual pavement distress evaluation method for many years. However, manual, visual evaluation of pavement surface distress is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and potentially dangerous. In order to overcome these limitations, this paper presents a novel approach for pavement surface distress detection through the use of aerial photos. This study was conducted using aerial photographs taken in 2010 and 2011 for part of the state of New Mexico. Twenty mileposts were selected as the study sites and the distress rates for these mileposts were calculated based on manual, visual observations using standard NMDOT protocols. Using the aerial photos as the base map, polygons were manually created on the aerial photos to simulate the visual evaluation zones. The statistics of the spectral response of different bands within these polygons were extracted and compared to the calculated distress rates using stepwise linear regression models. The results revealed that the spectral response in the aerial photos closely matches the calculated distress rates. These results open the way for the future use of aerial photographs to measure pavement distress rates, thereby providing a cost-effective, efficient, and safer alternative to traditional evaluation methods.
  Authors: Zhang`, Su; Bogus, Susan; Neville, Paul R.H.; Zhang, Guohui; Chen, Cong; Valentin, Vanessa
  Authors: Zhang`, Su; Bogus, Susan; Neville, Paul R.H.; Zhang, Guohui; Chen, Cong; Valentin, Vanessa
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 241
  Paper Number: 13-3156
• Crack Detection in Pavement Images Using Texture Analysis and Unsupervised Learning
  Abstract: The second phase of a two part study on using an unsupervised learning technique for the detection of road cracks from pavement images is described in this paper. The main concentration is on highly textured road images that make the crack detection very difficult. Road images are split into smaller rectangular cells and for each cells a representative data set is generated by analyzing image texture and colour properties. Texture and colour properties are combined with an unsupervised learning technique called the Kohonen map to distinguish crack areas from the background.Using this technique, cracks are detected to an accuracy of 75% was achieved. The background was segmented correctly with more than 99% accuracy despite it having very strong visual texture. The technique applied here shows a great deal of promise despite that the images were captured in an uncontrolled environment devoid of state-of-the-art image acquisition setups.
  Authors: Mathavan, Senthan; Rahman, Mujib; Kamal, Khurram
  Authors: Mathavan, Senthan; Rahman, Mujib; Kamal, Khurram
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 475
  Paper Number: 13-3174
• Methodology to Assess the Causes and Probability of Road Pavement Structural Failure
  Abstract: This paper presents a method to predict the probability of structural failure of road pavements using information contained in road datasets. Expert knowledge was used to develop failure charts which identify the potential factors that may contribute towards pavement failure. A computational technique, known as a Support Vector Machine, was built to use this information to determine from the datasets the probability of failure of individual road sections. With this prediction comes an indication of the predominant failure types, the causes of structural failure and the risk profile of a road network. The usefulness of the approach was demonstrated on a dataset taken from the New Zealand Long Term Pavement Performance study of State Highways, which predominantly consist of low-volume, flexible, unbound granular pavements. The analysis of the dataset showed that the network was in a good condition. It also identified a small number of pavement sections with a high likelihood of failure. Furthermore, the application of the failure paths examined the three predominant failure types occurring on the network and identified their possible causes. Rutting appears to be significantly influenced by the road pavement strength, cracking seems to be affected notably by the environment (i.e. water ingress) and shear failure is caused primarily by the combination of traffic, pavement composition and strength. In addition, it was confirmed that measured functional pavement condition alone is not a good identifier of failure, and that the inclusion of a parameter related to strength, such as pavement deflection, is essential.
  Authors: Schlotjes, Megan Rose; Burrow, Michael Peter Nicholas; Evdorides, Harry; Henning, Theuns F. P.
  Authors: Schlotjes, Megan Rose; Burrow, Michael Peter Nicholas; Evdorides, Harry; Henning, Theuns F. P.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 809
  Paper Number: 13-3175
• Toward Sustainable Pavement Management: Incorporating Environmental Impacts of Pavement Treatments into Performance-Based Optimization
  Abstract: Transportation asset management systems are concerned with the daunting task of maintenance and upgrade of infrastructures while restricted by annual budgets. However, the consideration of environmental impacts is normally left out of the analysis. This paper incorporates environmental impacts of maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements into the strategic planning. It explicitly considers greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy usage from such activities and conducts a performance-based optimization. It follows a three-step tradeoff process: finding minimum requirement of annual budget, maximizing condition and reducing environmental impacts. The results show that considering environmental impacts in the strategic planning returns a substantial gain in energy savings and GHG emissions reduction although a small sacrifice in pavement performance is required. It reduces energy usage and GHG emissions by 19 percent and 24 percent, respectively, while pavement condition drops slightly to 98.5 percent of optimal solution.
  Authors: Faghih-Imani, Ahmadreza; Amador-Jimenez, Luis
  Authors: Faghih-Imani, Ahmadreza; Amador-Jimenez, Luis
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Environment; Pavements
  Session: 705
  Paper Number: 13-3154
• Effect of Cross-Anisotropy of HMA Modulus on FWD Deflections and Embedded Sensor Stress-Strain
  Abstract: In this study, the effects of cross-anisotropy on asphalt pavement responses are examined. A dynamic Finite Element Model (FEM) is developed in ABAQUS to simulate pavement responses under Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and truck loads on a pavement section at interstate I-40 (Mile Post 141) in New Mexico. This section has recently been instrumented with strain gauges, moisture probes, and pressure cells. Pavement response (i.e. stress, strain, deflection) from the instrumented section are compared to the FEM predicted values. Two combinations of cross-anisotropy are considered. First combination considers cross-anisotropy of modulus in every layers of the pavement, whereas the second combination considers it only in the Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) layer. Time-deflection histories, stress, and strain are predicted from the FEM under FWD and truck loads. Results show that predicted deflections, stress, and strain are highly sensitive to cross-anisotropy. Predicted deflections, stress, and strain increase with a decrease in n-value, defined by the ratio of horizontal to vertical modulus of elasticity. Analyses are performed for two different shapes of loading area: semi-circle-rectangle and rectangle. It is shown that predicted stress and strain are larger for rectangular shape of loading area than for semi-circle-rectangle area. This study recommends including modulus anisotropy in FWD backcalculation and in pavement design.
  Authors: Ahmed, Mesbah Uddin; Tarefder, Rafiqul Alam; Islam, Md Rashadul
  Authors: Ahmed, Mesbah Uddin; Tarefder, Rafiqul Alam; Islam, Md Rashadul
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 665
  Paper Number: 13-3203
• Environmental Parameters for Infrastructure Modeling: Updating Existing Data on Spatial Distribution of Climatic Conditions in Continental United States
  Abstract: Climatic conditions can have severe impacts on the existing condition and long term durability of transportation infrastructure in a given region. As such, in infrastructure management studies, climatic conditions variables often play a major role. However, the most recently available winter climate condition indices on a national level was developed over 50 years ago, as such, an update on cold weather climate data, such as freezing index and freeze-thaw cycle, is needed. This paper updates these key climate variables using climatic data collected between 1971 and 2000. This paper presents freeze index and freeze-thaw cycle values in the form of contour maps, and a significant change in these climate values was observed since the late 1950¡¯s. This paper also explores the possibility of developing new climatic regions on the basis of combined, or a subset of, freeze index, freeze-thaw cycle, precipitation, and temperature. It is expected that the updated freeze indices and freeze-thaw cycle value will facilitate a more reliable assessment of climatic conditions and ultimately on their effect on transportation infrastructure.
  Authors: Liao, Tao
  Authors: Liao, Tao
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 246
  Paper Number: 13-3189
• Roughness Performance Model for Double Surface Treatment Highways
  Abstract: This paper presents the development of a roughness performance prediction model for double surface treatment highways. It is based on a factorial experiment design developed with data from the Department of Transport Infrastructure of the State of Bahia, Brazil, and also from data collected in 2009, when approximately 3,000 km of highways were travelled and 650 km of roughness survey were performed. The factors considered were pavement age, traffic volume and climate, the last one mainly in terms of rainfall. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to assess the significance of the factors and to define the parameters of the performance model. The obtained model was compared to other roughness prediction models and showed better correlation between observed and predicted values, indicating the validity of its use in pavement management analysis of double surface treatment road networks.
  Authors: Soncim, Sergio Pacifico; Fernandes, Jose Leomar
  Authors: Soncim, Sergio Pacifico; Fernandes, Jose Leomar
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-3191
• Investigation and Modification of Available Mechanistic-Empirical Procedures for Reflective Cracking in Asphalt Overlays of Concrete Pavements
  Abstract: Over the past decades, state, local, and federal use of asphalt concrete (AC) overlays to rehabilitate portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements has increased significantly. This situation has increased the attention given to mechanistic-empirical (M-E) modeling of reflective cracking. The paper describes recent research that assesses and modifies the state-of-the-art in mechanistic-empirical modeling of reflective cracking. This research reviewed the original Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) model and the CalME reflective cracking model. Furthermore, the paper details research that involved modification of the CalME model to facilitate its integration into the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) for composite AC-over-PCC pavement projects.
  Authors: Khazanovich, Lev; Tompkins, Derek; Wu, Rongzong; Harvey, John
  Authors: Khazanovich, Lev; Tompkins, Derek; Wu, Rongzong; Harvey, John
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 579
  Paper Number: 13-3264
• Probabilistic Simulation of Cracking in Asphalt Pavements: Chilean Case
  Abstract: Deterioration models allow predicting pavement condition and the development of maintenance programs. Normally, when evaluating pavement performance through model deterioration, the forecast given is a determinist value. However, pavement engineering projects, as any engineering project, have a degree of uncertainty. This implies that an adequate performance of the engineering solution cannot be absolutely guaranteed.The aim of this research is to incorporate probability in the output of a structural cracking model. To achieve this objective the model of crack initiation and progression of HDM-4 was used under several scenarios defined based on geographic location, type of traffic and structural capacity of 86 roads located in Chile. The input data for each scenario were obtained from the Ministry of Public Works of Chile and calibration studies of deterioration models to local conditions. To incorporate probability in the structural cracking models, a simulation model that reproduced the deterioration due to cracking for a lifecycle of 25 years was developed, based on random input data sets. With the set of outputs of the simulation, probability density functions that represent the probabilistic response of the deterioration model were developed.The main output of this research is a set of probability density functions of cracking initiation and cracking progression of all structural cracks and wide cracks of 14 groups of Chilean roads. Although the research was carried out using Chilean data, the methodology presented could be applied to other states or countries.
  Authors: Rodríguez, Mario Alberto Moreno; Thenoux, Guillermo; Gonzalez, Alvaro Andres
  Authors: Rodríguez, Mario Alberto Moreno; Thenoux, Guillermo; Gonzalez, Alvaro Andres
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-3251
• Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design to Mitigate Rutting in Asphalt Overlays of Concrete Pavements Using MEPDG and CalME
  Abstract: This paper describes the development of an approach for the prediction of rutting of newly constructed composite pavements and asphalt overlays of existing concrete pavements (AC-PCC). It investigates the MEPDG rutting model and the CalME procedure being developed by Caltrans and the University of California Pavement Research Center (UCPRC) and introduces a procedure incorporating the CalME rutting model into the MEPDG framework. The overall goal was to provide a procedure for rutting in AC-PCC design and analysis for pavement engineers that does not require uncommon inputs and does not force the user outside of the MEPDG framework. The article also describes the validation of the developed procedure using experimental data from the UCPRC and from the Minnesota Road Research facility (MnROAD); in addition the article details a brief sensitivity analysis of the developed procedure for rutting in AC-PCC. It is hoped that the developed procedure represents a step forward for the design and analysis of AC-PCC using the MEPDG.
  Authors: Khazanovich, Lev; Tompkins, Derek; Saxena, Priyam; Wu, Rongzong; Harvey, John
  Authors: Khazanovich, Lev; Tompkins, Derek; Saxena, Priyam; Wu, Rongzong; Harvey, John
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 239
  Paper Number: 13-3258
• Improving the Quality of Profile Measurements by Lifting Wavelet Filters
  Abstract: Profile measurement activities called as profiling require algorithms to eliminate unwanted noise and to extract the information of interest from measured data for the calculation of International Roughness Index (IRI) as well as any roughness index. Pavement cracks particularly cause problems in the calculation. Although a low-pass gsmoothingh filter will reduce a large dip caused by a crack included in a profile, conventional filtering algorithms do not completely remove the influence of cracks. This study develops a new smoothing algorithm using the lifting scheme theory to improve the quality of profile measurements. The procedures for developing the algorithm include (1) learning free parameters by using training signals, and then (2) constructing lifting wavelet filters. The filters are especially intended to remove the influence of cracks in profile measurement data. This paper also provides a profile-smoothing simulation study to demonstrate the advantages of the lifting wavelet filters over conventional digital filters such as the moving average and Butterworth filters. The results indicate that the lifting wavelet filters are superior in eliminating the influence of cracks for roughness evaluation to the conventional filtering algorithms. Finally, we conclude that the lifting wavelet filters allow profile users to improve the quality of profile measurements for the roughness evaluation such as IRI calculation. The findings of this study contribute to many applications related to pavement management such as surface monitoring, development of measurement devices, and interaction analysis between surface properties and vehicles.
  Authors: Tomiyama, Kazuya; Kawamura, Akira; Ishida, Tateki
  Authors: Tomiyama, Kazuya; Kawamura, Akira; Ishida, Tateki
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 241
  Paper Number: 13-3405
• Structural Evaluation of Pervious Concrete in Pavement Test Sections
  Abstract: An evaluation was made of the structural capacity of pervious concrete pavement on three base types including, virgin aggregate, recycled concrete aggregate, and Cellular Lightweight Permeable Concrete (CLPC). The objective was to determine the structural capability of pervious pavement to handle moderate truck traffic on city streets and low volume roads. Structural testing was performed using the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). The FWD tests were performed on five pervious pavement test sections representing the three base types. Tests were also performed on a conventional concrete (PCC) pavement with stabilized base and results were used as a reference for structural capacity assessment of the pervious sections. The maximum FWD deflections and the deflection profiles of the different pavements sections were analyzed by comparing the deflection data among the various sections and the conventional concrete pavement. Results of the evaluation indicated that the pervious concrete pavement on CLPC has equal structural capacity to that of the previous concrete on aggregate base, and a higher structural capacity to that on recycled concrete base. The results also showed that the structural capacity of pervious concrete is adequate to handle moderate truck traffic on streets and low volume roads.
  Authors: Armaghani, Jamshid M.
  Authors: Armaghani, Jamshid M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 554
  Paper Number: 13-3673
• Responses and Performance of Stabilized Full-Depth Reclaimed Pavements at MnROAD
  Abstract: This paper details the efforts regarding the construction and analysis of three stabilized full-depth reclamation (SFDR) sections (cells 2, 3, and 4) constructed at the Minnesota Road Research Facility (MnROAD) on I-94 in 2008. Three test sections with varying pulverized asphalt concrete/granular base ratios were constructed in order to study the performance of full-depth reclaimed (FDR) pavements stabilized with engineered emulsion. Emulsion content and base structure varied between test sections. Each test section was designed for 3.5 million ESALs over a period of five years. The sections have been subjected to approximately 2.2 million ESALs as of 30 June 2012.Strain gages were embedded at the bottom of the hot-mix asphalt (HMA) and SFDR layers in each test section to measure responses. The strain gages indicate that both the bottom of the HMA and SFDR layers are subject to horizontal tensile strain from falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and heavy vehicle loading. Pavement performance in terms of rutting, cracking, and international roughness index (IRI) has been measured periodically. The results indicate that all three cells are performing well. The only crack in the three cells exists in cell 3, IRI values are well within the acceptable range, and rutting, while progressing, is still acceptable. Finally, the paper concludes with modeled responses and performance predictions from DARWinME and BISAR. Model predictions indicate that a SFDR layer will provide greater structural benefits and increased performance than similar structures with unstabilized FDR or granular base layers.
  Authors: Johanneck, Luke A; Dai, Shongtao
  Authors: Johanneck, Luke A; Dai, Shongtao
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 555
  Paper Number: 13-3135
• Incorporation of Mechanistic-Empirical Faulting Model into Design of Composite Pavements
  Abstract: This paper describes the development of an approach for the prediction of faulting in the concrete layer of composite pavements, which for this paper are taken to be asphalt concrete (AC) overlays of existing Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements. Currently the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide considers faulting only for jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) projects and does not consider faulting for AC-PCC pavements, which does not permit rational design of dowels in the PCC layer. The paper briefly details the original MEPDG JPCP faulting model. Modifications to this model for the benefit of AC-PCC projects are introduced and detailed, and a procedure is described that incorporates this new model into the existing MEPDG framework. The overall goal was to provide a procedure for faulting in AC-PCC design and analysis for pavement engineers that does not require uncommon inputs and does not force the user outside of the MEPDG framework. The paper also describes a sensitivity analysis of the developed procedure for faulting in AC-PCC. It is hoped that the developed procedure represents a step forward for the design and analysis of composite pavements using the MEPDG.
  Authors: Khazanovich, Lev; Tompkins, Derek; Clyne, Timothy R.
  Authors: Khazanovich, Lev; Tompkins, Derek; Clyne, Timothy R.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 441
  Paper Number: 13-3271
• Viscoelastic Genetic Algorithm for Inverse Analysis of Asphalt Layer Properties from Falling Weight Deflections
  Abstract: Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is a nondestructive test typically used to backcalculate layer properties of in-service pavements. Most backcalculation methods assume the pavement to be layered elastic structure. However, asphalt pavements are multilayered viscoelastic systems and their response under small load level is primarily viscoelastic. Hence, although elastic analysis is computationally efficient, they don’t produce the fundamental material properties such as the complex modulus E* or creep compliance D(t). On the other hand, there are dynamic backcalculation methods that can consider the asphalt pavements as viscoelastic, however they are computationally inefficient and inaccurate if the FWD deflection time history is truncated. Furthermore, most existing methods either ignore the asphalt concrete (AC) temperature or assume the entire depth of the AC layer to be at a constant temperature. In this study, a new inverse analysis method is proposed to backcalculate linear viscoelastic pavement layer properties (i.e., E(t)) as well as the time-temperature superposition shift factor coefficients. In this method, FWD load-response history of a single FWD drop and variation in temperature along the depth of AC layer during the drop are used. Genetic algorithm based optimization scheme is offered to search for the pavement properties, which has the potential of converging to a global solution. As an example, two LTPP sections are selected for backcalculation. The results are positive, indicating that there is a possibility to backcalculate AC properties from a single FWD drop, provided the effect of dynamics is insignificant during the test.
  Authors: Varma, Sudhir; Kutay, Muhammed Emin; Levenberg, Eyal
  Authors: Varma, Sudhir; Kutay, Muhammed Emin; Levenberg, Eyal
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 665
  Paper Number: 13-4091
• Matched Filtering Algorithm for Pavement Cracking Detection
  Abstract: There have been rapid developments of automated cracking survey for pavements in recent years. Especially the introduction of laser-imaging technology has made the acquisition of shadow-free images feasible. However, due to the complexity of pavement surface, diverse characteristics of cracks, presence of foreign objects, and varying identification protocols, the results of fully automated technologies for cracking survey have only been used on limited basis. This paper introduces a novel detection theory, matched filtering algorithm, into pavement cracking detection as part of an effort to improve precision and bias levels of the fully automated system. Unlike traditional edge detection approaches which adopt first- or second-order derivatives of image signals, the matched filtering algorithm detects cracks by matching pre-designed filters with crack features in terms of shape, orientation and intensity. Experimentations are conducted and detection results are compared between the five traditional edge detectors (Robert, Prewitt, Sobel, LoG and Canny) and the matched filtering algorithm. It is demonstrated that the matched filtering algorithm is a robust approach to detecting cracks and has better performance in noise removal and cracking detection. With matched filters aligned at different orientations, this algorithm shows its distinctive advantages at extracting a single crack as it is, and recording the crack’s orientation to be used for more accurate classification in the next step of automated processing.
  Authors: Zhang, Allen; Li, Qiang; Wang, Kelvin C. P.; Qiu, Shi
  Authors: Zhang, Allen; Li, Qiang; Wang, Kelvin C. P.; Qiu, Shi
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 475
  Paper Number: 13-4077
• Use of Geothermal Deep Foundations for Bridge Deicing
  Abstract: Winter deicing practices reduce the longevity of bridge infrastructure making it difficult to achieve the national goal of a100-year or more bridge service life that was set by the Second Strategic Highway Research Program. The vast majority of these bridges are supported on deep foundations. The goal of this study is to evaluate the concept of using geothermal deep foundation (energy piles) to heat the bridge slab minimizing or eliminating the use of deicing salt. This concept has the advantage of using the required foundation elements to also function as heat exchangers with the surrounding soil that has approximately a constant temperature below a depth of 1 to 3 m (depending on the region). This paper describes a two dimensional finite element model used to assess the power demands needed to heat a typical bridge slab. Initially, the two dimensional model of a conventional bridge (not incorporating the geothermal system) was validated using a case study for a bridge in Rhode Island where the temperature of the bridge slab was monitored for about one year. Once validated, the model was extended to include the effects of geothermal deep foundations for the weather condition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania as an example. Analyses were conducted to simulate the performance of the geothermal system with and without preheating of the bridge slab before the snow or ice formation event.
  Authors: Suleiman, Muhannad T.
  Authors: Suleiman, Muhannad T.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 465
  Paper Number: 13-4133
• Development of Climate Zones for DARWin-ME
  Abstract: The Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (EICM) integrated in the DARWin-ME design procedure allows users to select adjacent weather stations to generate a virtual weather station (VWS), whose data are further used to predict environmental impact on pavement performance. The DARWin-ME approach doesn't fully consider the potential spatial variations among these adjacent stations. Therefore, developing climate zones within a state may be necessary to account for the different climatic patterns and improve the accuracy of generated climate data. In this paper, using climate data from the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), a cluster analysis technique is applied to develop climate zones for the State of Oklahoma. Consequently, climatic data from NCDC, DARWin-ME site-specific weather station, DARWin-ME interpolation approach using adjacent stations, and interpolation using stations within the same climate zone are obtained and compared. It is anticipated that the virtual weather data generated from the approach developed in this paper will provide more accurate data than those using the built-in DARWin-ME database and approach. However, due to the fact that Oklahoma is one of the most geographically flattest states in the US and the spatial variations within the states are insignificant, only minor improvements are obtained using the proposed technique in the DARWin-ME analyses. It is identified in the paper that selecting 5 to 10-year period of climate history data provided in DARWin-ME to generate climate data for a 20 to 40-year pavement design is inadequate. It is recommended that further work needs to be conducted in the states where substantial spatial variations are present.
  Authors: Li, Qiang; Wang, Kelvin C. P.; Zhang, Jun
  Authors: Li, Qiang; Wang, Kelvin C. P.; Zhang, Jun
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 236
  Paper Number: 13-4149
• Evaluation of Seasonal Variation in Pavement Mechanistic Responses Using Falling Weight Deflectometer Data
  Abstract: Pavement structures in regions with severe and frequent freeze and thaw cycles are prone to prompt damage. The pavement structure is in its weakest conditions right after the start of the thawing season each year. The existing practice followed by many highway agencies is to enforce spring road ban (SRB) during the critical thawing period. Alberta Transportation performs an extensive Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) test program during the spring to enhance SRB decision making process. In this study, the results from the FWD tests for multiple highway sections in Alberta from 2000 and 2006 were analyzed to investigate the effect of seasonal variation on pavement stiffness and mechanistic responses. The FWD data was used to backcalculate the pavement layers’ moduli and to predict two critical pavement responses of tensile strain at the bottom of the Asphalt Concrete layer and compressive strain at the top of the subgrade in spring and summer. The Asphalt Institute’s predictive models for fatigue cracking and rutting failures were used to relate the pavement responses to the allowable number of load repetitions (Nf for fatigue and Nd for rutting). The comparison of Nf and Nd between the spring and summer shows differences of as high as 88 percent for Nf and 98 percent for Nd. Further analysis showed that a 50% reduction in the load during the critical period of spring can result in about a 90% increase in the Nd and Nf.
  Authors: Norouzi, Meisam; Nassiri, Somayeh; Bayat, Alireza
  Authors: Norouzi, Meisam; Nassiri, Somayeh; Bayat, Alireza
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 480
  Paper Number: 13-3346
• Environmental Analysis of Asphalt Pavement Maintenance Using Modified Binders in Developing Countries: Case Study in Bogotá, Colombia
  Abstract: This study presents an environmental analysis of four maintenance alternatives for a case study to be conducted in Bogotá, Colombia. The study involves a conventional hot-mix asphalt (CHMA), a polymer-modified hot mix with styrene butadiene styrene (PM-SBS) and two crumb rubber asphalt mixes, asphalt rubber dense-graded (AR-DG), and asphalt rubber gap-graded (AR-GG). This paper presents an analyzes of the environmental impacts of these maintenance options by using the Eco-indicator99 as a life-cycle inventory -tool (LCIT). The analysis is complemented by estimations of the global-warming potential (GWP) index and energy consumption of each option. Two scenarios and their environmental impacts were considered: using 1) heating oil (HO) or 2) natural gas (NG) as fuel for drying and mixing in an asphalt plant. Also, the binder transportation was analyzed with the consideration that, in Colombia, there are only two national refineries with binder production to cover the country demand. The impacts of a polymer-modified plant (PMP) and the tire-shredding process were considered as well. The results showed that the production of materials contributed roughly 55% to 65% of environmental load (EL), and heating aggregates contributed almost 29% of EL. Maintenance conducted using AR-GG was considered the more eco-efficient option with the lowest EL, on the other hand AR-DG, and PM-SBS showed to have similar EL.
  Authors: Martinez-Arguelles, Gilberto; Crispino, Maurizio; Giustozzi, Filippo; Flintsch, Gerardo W.
  Authors: Martinez-Arguelles, Gilberto; Crispino, Maurizio; Giustozzi, Filippo; Flintsch, Gerardo W.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Environment; Pavements
  Session: 705
  Paper Number: 13-3475
• Evaluation of Joint Sealant Effectiveness on Moisture Infiltration and Erosion Potential in Concrete Pavement
  Abstract: Effectiveness of sealants to protect jointed concrete pavement against erosion related distresses has been a focus of great interest recently. An experimental program was carried out on the Riverside Campus of Texas A&M University to study the effectiveness of different sealant types to limit infiltration of the joint under different joint openings. The experiments included three main sealant types; silicon, hot-pour and preformed sealants with different joint well and debonding conditions. A movable joint system was employed to simulate joint widening. The results show the importance of having sealants in jointed concrete pavements. The unsealed joints have significantly higher flow rates when compared to damaged sealants. Sealants are less effective when there are extreme joint openings. The preformed sealants showed better performance. Installation quality is discussed as a critical factor in joint sealant effectiveness. Experiments also showed that sealants that are installed on dirty joint walls cannot develop a good bond to the joint well and consequently show poor performance. The effect of joint seal installation and the drainage quality of the pavement system was employed to adjust a faulting prediction model making it more representative of the effect of moisture at the interface on performance. The three main elements of erosion are erodibility of the base/subbase, number of wet days, and traffic are included in the model. The model represents the effect of sealing joints on concrete pavement performance.
  Authors: Neshvadian Bakhsh, Keivan; Zollinger, Dan G.; Jung, Youn-Su
  Authors: Neshvadian Bakhsh, Keivan; Zollinger, Dan G.; Jung, Youn-Su
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 773
  Paper Number: 13-3489
• Investigation of Recycled Building Materials for Flexible Pavement Mixes in Egyptian Low-Volume Roads
  Abstract: The deposition of demolished concrete from old building structures in landfills is currently an unacceptable strategy because of the increasing cost of disposal, the declining availability of disposal space, and other environmental concerns. Recycling of old building structures as construction materials is a viable alternative. The objectives of this research study are to investigate the feasibility of using Recycled Building Materials in asphalt pavement mixes. Two types of Recycled Building Materials, Recycled Bricks (RB) and Recycled Concrete (RC) were used as coarse aggregates in Hot Mix Asphalt of Low Volume Roads in Egypt. A total of nine hot asphalt mixtures were formed by replacing certain percent of the coarse virgin aggregates by crushed bricks and concrete. The prepared mixtures were tested in Marshall, immersion, indirect tensile, and creep tests to investigate the effect of recycled materials on mixture properties and identify the optimum percentage of recycled materials.The findings in this project support the hypothesis that both RC and RB can be used effectively as a coarse aggregate in HMA when appropriate quality control techniques are utilized. Based on the information obtained in this study, the recycled building materials could be used as partial replacement of coarse virgin aggregates in HMA without significant reduction in its performance.
  Authors: Mahgoub, Hesham; Mohamady, Ahmed; Abdel-Motaleb, Mohammed
  Authors: Mahgoub, Hesham; Mohamady, Ahmed; Abdel-Motaleb, Mohammed
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 284
  Paper Number: 13-3526
• Pavement Condition States Before and After Treatments
  Abstract: When a pavement section is subjected to preservation or rehabilitation treatments, its surface conditions transfer from one set of condition states before treatment to another set of condition states after treatment. This transformation is a function of the pavement condition states before treatment, the treatment types and timing, the project boundaries, and the quality of construction. For most pavement sections, the before and after treatment surface conditions vary substantially along the section and over time. In this study, which is sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the distributions of the pavement surface conditions and distress before and after treatment along several flexible pavement projects in the State of Louisiana were analyzed. It is shown that the current practice regarding the selection of pavement treatment type, treatment time, and project boundaries are independent of the pavement surface conditions and distress before treatment.For all pavement projects that received certain treatment types in the past, knowledge of the relationships between the before and the after treatment distributions of the pavement surface conditions and distress is crucial to the establishment of future cost-effective pavement treatment strategy. This paper shows that such relationships can be expressed by the probabilities of transforming the before treatment condition states to the after treatment condition states. These probabilities could be housed in one matrix format called the “Treatment Transition Matrix (T2M)”. For each treatment type, the T2M presents a snap shot of the state-of-the-practice.
  Authors: Baladi, Gilbert Y.; Dean, Christopher M.
  Authors: Baladi, Gilbert Y.; Dean, Christopher M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-3599
• Sprinkle Treatment on Thin Durable Asphalt Overlays
  Abstract: This paper presents techniques to improve asphalt overlays through the use of innovative surfacing technologies with durable aggregates spread on a cost-effective base wearing surface mixture using local aggregates. The sprinkle treatment was previously used in a few states in order to improve skid resistance of pavement surfaces on top of typical asphalt pavements. Over past decades, numerous approaches have been introduced to improve the performance of asphalt pavement. These improvements often add cost because of using high quality aggregates and modified binder. Since sustainable and cost-effective pavements are being emphasized, innovative application of the sprinkle treatment has been considered. A fine dense-graded asphalt wearing surface mixture, developed using the Bailey method, provides a promising aggregate structure that makes it possible to ensure compactibility using relatively thinner asphalt mixture layers. The mix design of the base mix was developed using less expensive local aggregates, and its performance was evaluated and compared with two control mixtures for durability, rut resistance, moisture susceptibility, fracture, and complex modulus in the laboratory. In addition, test pavements of various thicknesses were constructed in northern Illinois during October and November 2010 to evaluate the performance of sprinkle treatment pavements under real traffic loading. On-site performance tests that include noise, friction, rut depth and texture profiles were conducted at four-month intervals following construction. The study concluded that it is feasible to use a cost effective alternative wearing surface that performs well.
  Authors: Son, Songsu; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Lippert, David Leslie; Zehr, Thomas G.
  Authors: Son, Songsu; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Lippert, David Leslie; Zehr, Thomas G.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-3612
• Impacts of Continuous Data Collection on Accuracy of Pavement Management Decisions
  Abstract: The current economic climate is forcing reduction in the costs of data collection using sampling. For semi-automated distress data collection techniques, data sampling implies continuous pavement imaging and digitization of the images of sampled pavement segments. Although sampling precipitates immediate reduction in the cost of data collection, its true costs cannot be determined unless the impacts of data sampling on the accuracy and variability of the pavement condition data are analyzed.In this study, sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), continuously collected time series pavement distress data were requested and obtained from the Sates of Colorado, Louisiana, Michigan, and Washington. The transverse and longitudinal cracking data for 109 miles of pavement were used to simulate ten percent sampling and determine the effects of data sampling and sample size on the accuracy of the pavement condition data. For each one mile of pavement, the distress data along the sample were assumed to represent the condition along the entire mile.The paper shows that the accuracy of data sampling is a function of the sample size and the uniformity or variability of the distress data. Furthermore, as time elapses and pavement deteriorates with no applied treatments, variability between continuous and sampled data sets increases substantially. As expected, increasing the sample size reduces the differences between the sampled and continuous data. However, given that some states use ten percent sample size, it is likely that the potential misallocation of pavement treatment funds due to sampling may outweigh the savings incurred by sampling.
  Authors: Baladi, Gilbert Y.; Dean, Christopher M.
  Authors: Baladi, Gilbert Y.; Dean, Christopher M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 780
  Paper Number: 13-3617
• Development of Time-Efficient Genetic Algorithm Backcalculation Method for Flexible Pavements
  Abstract: Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, especially Falling Weight Deflection (FWD) test, are invaluable for assessing the structural load capacity of pavements. In order to determine the structural capacity of existing roads, engineers need accurate information on the thickness and elastic modulus of the various layers. Layer moduli and thicknesses are used to calculate load capacities to predict the performance of roads and select appropriate rehabilitation actions. Unfortunately, there is no analytical approach for back-calculation of FWD test output. Most of the existing back-calculation programs model deflection basin by minimizing a function which is related to difference of the calculated and measured deflections. Since the objective function is usually complex and has several minima, traditional calculus-based optimization techniques are often ineffective for obtaining the best fit. This paper, reviews different methods that can be used to back-calculate pavements layer moduli. Since genetic algorithms (GAs) have demonstrated significant potential for solving problems involving multi-modal search spaces, in this study GAs were employed to obtain the best deflection basin fit. Although GAs are strong search engines, they are not time efficient and require a long search time. The objective of this study is mainly to improve the time efficiency of GA-based search engine used for back-calculation. Using a novel method of coding and data structure, authors developed a time efficient back-calculation software, named MBGA: Moduli Back-calculation using Genetic Algorithm. Other issues such as the effect of pavement structure on the optimum value of GA parameters, and the effect of a rigid layer on MBGA convergence were investigated. MBGA performance was evaluated under various conditions for three and four-layer pavement systems. Results demonstrated that the new GA-based search engine not only performed well in finding the global optima, but also reduced the search time significantly. Since MBGA unlike the other GA-based programs requires reasonably short computational time, it can meet the engineering needs for practical use.
  Authors: Motamed, Arash; Tabatabaee, Nader; Motamed, Moggan
  Authors: Motamed, Arash; Tabatabaee, Nader; Motamed, Moggan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 665
  Paper Number: 13-3637
• Effectiveness Evaluation of Mississippi's Pavement Warranty Program
  Abstract: More and more state highway agencies have adopted pavement warranty programs in their project contracting in order to foster contractor innovation, enhance pavement performance, reduce agency costs, and preserve pavement construction investment. The Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT) initiated its pavement warranty program in 2000. This study evaluated the effectiveness of MDOT’s pavement warranty program, using the rutting, cracking, IRI, and other typical surface distress data that were collected and stored in MDOT’s pavement management system database. The distributions of the pavement performance data at different service times were developed for both warranty and non-warranty projects to reveal the pavement performance characteristics under the two contracting methods. Furthermore, pairwise comparison of the distributions of pavement performance data at different service times was conducted to investigate the pavement deterioration patterns over time for both warranty and non-warranty pavements. Finally, two-sample t-tests were performed to compare the performance of warranty versus non-warranty pavements at the same service times. The results of the study showed that the deterioration rate of the warranty pavements was slower than the non-warranty pavements and the performance of the warranty pavements was superior to the non-warranty pavements at the same service times. Based on the statistical analyses, it could be concluded that the pavement warranty program in Mississippi can effectively improve the pavement performance for the state.
  Authors: Qi, Yan; Wang, Feng; El Gendy, Amin; Li, Yibo
  Authors: Qi, Yan; Wang, Feng; El Gendy, Amin; Li, Yibo
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 479
  Paper Number: 13-3644
• Development of Field Rut Prediction Models from an Instrumented Test Section on Interstate-35
  Abstract: This paper presents the development of two different field calibrated rut prediction models based on data collected from an instrumented pavement section on I-35 in McClain County, Oklahoma. Two rut prediction models: vertical strain-based (VSB) and shear strain-based (SSB) were developed utilizing four years of pavement and environmental data and from approximately 18.7-million accumulated axles. The VSB model considers vertical strain on the top of the aggregate base layer, while SSB model was based on the shear strain in the Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) layer. Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) tests were conducted over a wide range of temperature to establish modulus and temperature relationship. WinJULEA, a pavement analysis software, was used to develop correlations between temperature and vertical and shear strains for single and tandem axles. In addition, field rut measurements were conducted periodically using a straight edge-rut gauge combination and a Face Dipstick®. The rut progression graphs show that the test section underwent both primary and secondary rutting. The correlation coefficient (R2 value) for VSB and SSB models were found to be 0.86 and 0.80, respectively. Overall, the VSB model performed better when compared to the SSB model. A systematic methodology to develop these models is presented in the paper. The results from this study are expected to be useful in predicting rut of state highway pavements under similar traffic and environmental conditions. In addition, data collected from this study may be used for local calibration of rut prediction model available in the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG).
  Authors: Hossain, Nur; Solanki, Pranshoo; Zaman, Musharraf; Muraleetharan, Kanthasamy K.; Singh, Dharamveer
  Authors: Hossain, Nur; Solanki, Pranshoo; Zaman, Musharraf; Muraleetharan, Kanthasamy K.; Singh, Dharamveer
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 554
  Paper Number: 13-3656
• Three-Dimensional Finite Element Model for Analysis of Transverse Cracking in Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
  Abstract: In this study, a three dimensional finite element model was developed to investigate crack development and mechanical responses of steel bar and concrete slab of continuously reinforced concrete pavement. An incremental method was adopted to take into account variations of free contraction strains and material properties of concrete in the early stage after casting. A model of mechanical interaction between steel and concrete was developed and values of the parameters were identified by comparing calculated and measured responses. Effects of crack spacing, base course stiffness and depth of steel bar on steel bar and concrete slab stresses and crack width were examined. It was found that strong bonding between steel and concrete leads to higher stresses in steel bar and concrete slab. Short crack spacing reduces tensile stresses in steel bar and concrete slab and crack width. Small peak in tensile stress on the top of slab near crack appears when stiffness of base course is low. The peak of tensile stress might cause “secondary” crack near “primary” crack. Deeper steel bar position leads to wider crack width at the top of slab. Embedding steel bars at a third depth of slab thickness is a reasonable practice to keep crack width tight on the slab surface and prevent water penetration.
  Authors: Nishizawa, Tatsuo
  Authors: Nishizawa, Tatsuo
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 474
  Paper Number: 13-3684
• Numerical Modeling of Retrofit Underdrains in Pavement Rehabilitation and Reconstruction: Case Study
  Abstract: This study focused on rainfall infiltration into pavement and water movement in the permeable base and retrofit underdrain of pavement by means of numerical simulation. The pavement examined was a new asphalt pavement section with an underdrain retrofit after reconstruction and an asphalt overlay on the top of a Crack and Seated (C & S) jointed reinforced concrete pavement with underdrain retrofit after rehabilitation on SR-49, Indiana. In order to provide highway engineers with a methodology to analyze water migration and drainage into pavement systems, a finite-element model of the pavement was developed and a number of numerical analyses were performed to evaluate the movement of water in the pavement using the SEEP/W 2004 program. Unsaturated flow analysis was used to obtain the flow path of the infiltrated water and flux quantity through a cross-sectional area in the pavement. The performance of the underdrain system was evaluated considering various levels of precipitation, cracks, permeable base and underdrain, and subgrade Soil–Water Characteristic Curves (SWCC). The findings of this research revealed that pavement sections without cracks on the surface can still accommodate approximately 20-60 percent of the rainfall volume. How much water actually infiltrates into the pavement depends on the rainfall type, and an edge drain can easily outflow most water within a few hours if the underdrain is in good condition. Therefore, the infiltration of water into the pavement structure should be addressed when designing pavement. When pavement is rehabilitated, an HMA overlay C& S JPCP layer in conjunction with a retrofit underdrain can function as an efficient method for subsurface drainage. Therefore, the infiltration of water into the pavement structure should be considered when designing pavement. In addition, this study shows that a newly-constructed full-depth asphalt with a drainage layer can also provide excellent drainage. Pavement underdrainage should be considered in planning future reconstruction and rehabilitation projects.
  Authors: Ji, Yigong; Nantung, Tommy E.; Qi, Qi
  Authors: Ji, Yigong; Nantung, Tommy E.; Qi, Qi
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 460
  Paper Number: 13-3704
• Permanent Deformation of Flexible Pavements: Laboratory and Field Performance Comparisons
  Abstract: Permanent deformation (rutting) is a major distress in asphalt pavements that needs to be minimized for the safety of the driving public. Laboratory rutting performance tests, namely, loaded wheel tracking (LWT) test, flow number (Fn), and rut factor (|E*|/sinƒÔ@54C,5Hz) computed from dynamic modulus test are among common indicators that have been used to predict the rutting performance of asphalt mixtures in the field by many highway agencies. However, the correlations of these laboratory rutting performance indicators with field rutting performance have not been thoroughly evaluated. The primary objective of this study was to identify the correlations of the laboratory rutting performance indicators to the measured field rutting. Through this analysis, laboratory test criteria were evaluated to ensure acceptable rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures in the field. Results of this study showed that field rut measurements and the laboratory LWT rut depth have a considerably high correlation with a R2 value of 0.80. The current LWT rut depth criterion of 6.0 mm @20,000 passes used in Louisiana appears reasonable with a predicted field rutting of 7.5 mm at the end of the service life. On the other hand, there was poor correlations between the field rutting and the laboratory measured flow number, and rut factor (RF).
  Authors: Kim, Minkyum; Mohammad, Louay N.; Elseifi, Mostafa A.; Challa, Harshavardhan
  Authors: Kim, Minkyum; Mohammad, Louay N.; Elseifi, Mostafa A.; Challa, Harshavardhan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 657
  Paper Number: 13-3715
• Numerical Modeling of Subsurface Drainage Under Concrete Pavement
  Abstract: To prevent the damaging effects of undrained moisture in pavement structures, it has become common to incorporate subsurface drainage features such as permeable bases and edgedrains into pavement design in the state of Indiana. A numerical (FEM) design methodology has been developed to ensure that the level of subsurface drainage is adequate for a concrete pavement structure. Lab tests for typical base and separate layer materials were conducted using Falling Head Testing in the course of study. Movement of water through the pavement sections was modeled using the finite element method. Two-dimensional finite element software (SEEP/W), which is capable of simulating unsaturated water flow in layered systems, was used. Precipitation recorded by an automated weather station at the monitoring site was input in the model. Numerical simulation results showed that the finite element method can be used to simulate water flow through pavement layers. Comparisons between DRIP analysis and SEEP/W analysis are provided to facilitate effective subsurface drainage design. Examples indicated that the drainage features were adequate; however, when evaluating the effectiveness of the drainage features provided, the Empirical equations in DRIP provided more conservative results compared to those obtained using the FEM approach. This research presents a more accurate assessment using FEM and proves that the current pipe size can accommodate infiltration water in Indiana. Variation of hydraulic conductivity with water content (degree of saturation), pavement geometry and dimensions, and use of subsurface drainage pipes are also important in controlling the effectiveness of a pavement subsurface drainage system. Finally, maintenance plays an important role in preserving the effectiveness of the permeable base of PCCP.
  Authors: Ji, Yigong; Nantung, Tommy E.; Qi, Qi
  Authors: Ji, Yigong; Nantung, Tommy E.; Qi, Qi
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 460
  Paper Number: 13-3716
• Recycling of Urban Road Using Foam Bitumen: Indian Experience
  Abstract: Recycling of pavements is a relatively new technique in India and gaining popularity in recent times due to several merits over conventional pavement rehabilitation techniques. The first recycling work of flexible pavements was undertaken nearly a decade ago and since then milling and recycling of pavements has been adopted in some parts of urban and high volume roads in India. However there have been no research studies reported on these works. In recent times, foam bitumen recycled pavement work was undertaken on some urban roads of Kolkata city in India, Detailed investigation on milling and foam bitumen recycling work of these pavements was performed and presented in this paper. Laboratory investigation on milled and recycled material, field evaluation using Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) before and after rehabilitation was carried out.. Results indicate that the foam bitumen recycling is a very promising alternative to rehabilitate the pavements and to address the concern of conservation of energy and natural resources.
  Authors: Muppi Reddy, Amaranath Reddy; Reddy, K. Sudhakar; Pandey, Braj Bushan
  Authors: Muppi Reddy, Amaranath Reddy; Reddy, K. Sudhakar; Pandey, Braj Bushan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 555
  Paper Number: 13-3740
• Current Practices for Prioritization of Rehabilitation and Preventive Maintenance of Pavement Projects in Texas
  Abstract: With finite resources and an extensive road network to maintain, state agencies must make optimal and cost-effective decisions to prioritize roadways to receive rehabilitation (RH) and preventive maintenance (PM) treatments. Prioritization methods implemented by state agencies range from a simple ranking of projects based on judgment to comprehensive optimization by mathematical programming models. The Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) districts make RH and PM decisions based on data extracted from the Pavement Management Information System (PMIS). Each district uses a combination of approaches that rely significantly on judgment for identifying RH and PM projects. There is a pressing need to develop a simple, comprehensive prioritization method that reflects state-wide experience, while it is easy to implement using PMIS data. A state-wide survey was developed to obtain the various methods the districts use to make these decisions. The responses obtained suggested that the PMIS data combined with visual inspection are the main tools use to prioritize projects. A computer tool was developed utilizing the information obtained from the survey data. It relies on a prioritization index based on the weights assigned to various distresses, as well as other factors such as traffic levels and structural condition. This computer tool was successfully verified by comparing its output to actual decisions made by TxDOT district personnel.
  Authors: Dessouky, Samer H; Papagiannakis, A. Thomas; Krugler, Paul E.; Freeman, Thomas John
  Authors: Dessouky, Samer H; Papagiannakis, A. Thomas; Krugler, Paul E.; Freeman, Thomas John
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 479
  Paper Number: 13-3751
• Laboratory and Field Evaluation of Cold-in-Place RAP Recycling
  Abstract: Cold in-place recycling (CIR) is a viable pavement rehabilitation technique that recycles 100% of the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) in situ, without heat. Six test sections were constructed on a heavy traffic road in the south of Brazil using CIR with cement and cationic slow set polymer modified emulsion (CSS-1P). Different thickness of the recycled layer (80mm, 110mm, and 150mm) and two types of asphalt surface layers (HMA and Microsurfacing) were investigated. The RAP was sampled during the recycling operations and brought to the laboratory for its characterization and further mechanical tests evaluation (tensile strength, moisture sensitivity, and triaxial resilient modulus). Field samples were obtained from the test sections to evaluate the performance of recycled mixture. They were tested for rutting resistance (LCPC wheel tracking test) and indirect tensile resilient modulus. Structural evaluation of the test sections were performed through the FWD in different seasons of the year. It was observe a decrease in the modulus of the recycled layers during the rainy season, in comparison with the dry season results. The laboratory tests also indicated a moderate moisture sensitivity material. The backcalculated resilient moduli of the CIR layer presented the same order of magnitude of the moduli obtained in the laboratory tests. The CIR presented reduced permanent deformation in the laboratory and low rutting in the field after two years of the rehabilitation.
  Authors: Marcandali da Silva, Amanda Helena; Vasconcelos, Kamilla L.; Aranha, Ana Luisa; Bernucci, Liedi Bariani; Chaves, José Mario
  Authors: Marcandali da Silva, Amanda Helena; Vasconcelos, Kamilla L.; Aranha, Ana Luisa; Bernucci, Liedi Bariani; Chaves, José Mario
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 555
  Paper Number: 13-4178
• Linking Interstate Pavement Preservation Investment to Performance: Exploratory Aggregate Analysis
  Abstract: The U.S Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the General Accountability Office (GAO) of the United States continue to emphasize the need for regular monitoring of highway system performance vis-à-vis the resources expended on the system. There are people who strongly feel that the allocation of future highway aids should consider relative performance of individual state. There is therefore a need for a framework for the quantification of the relationship between highway system expenditure and the performance in terms of physical condition. In attempting to throw some light on this issue, this paper investigates the impact of interstate highway pavement preservation investments on the physical performance of these facilities. To help remove bias, the analysis incorporated the system size as a normalizing variable and key deterioration factors in each state. Data included system performance, expenditure, extent of truck travel, and climatic severity from 2000–2008. A variety of model specifications were used including lagged panel models. The study outcome not only provides a relationship between preservation resource allocation and performance outcome for pavements, but also presents the relative performance across states while duly accounting for extenuating factors such as climate and traffic. It is hoped that this analysis will help national highway administrators acquire a deeper comprehension of the resource-outcome link, identify and explain the performance differences across states, and foster accountability and communication.
  Authors: Agbelie, Bismark Richard Delaidem Kofi; Labi, Samuel; Sinha, Kumares C.; Noureldin, A. Samy
  Authors: Agbelie, Bismark Richard Delaidem Kofi; Labi, Samuel; Sinha, Kumares C.; Noureldin, A. Samy
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 256
  Paper Number: 13-4212
• Aging Characteristics of RAP-Modified Binders: Rheological Properties
  Abstract: A study involving two RTFO-aged asphalts and their blends with 15 and 50 percent of extracted RAP binders was conducted to investigate the effect of RAP content and properties on the long-term aging characteristics of asphalt binders. This paper presents the influence of RAP binders on the rheological properties of fresh binders in terms of their aging characteristics. The results from rheological analyses of aged blended binders indicate that the aging characteristics of blended binders are dependent on fresh asphalt binders. The results show the crossover frequency decreases as RAP concentrations increase and the rheological index increases as RAP concentration increases. The pattern for stiffness increase as a function of aging times for RAP blended binders is similar to that of typical chemical aging kinetic model, where the stiffness increases substantially initially and then levels off at longer aging times. The results demonstrate that there is a linear relationship between the logarithm of G* and phase angle for RAP blended binders at all aging times and RAP contents, regardless of asphalt and RAP sources.
  Authors: Huang, Shin-Che; Turner, Thomas F
  Authors: Huang, Shin-Che; Turner, Thomas F
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 307
  Paper Number: 13-4226
• Real-Time Monitoring of Bridge Scour with Magnetic Field Strength Measurement
  Abstract: Scour was responsible for most of the U.S. bridges that collapsed during the past 40 years. The maximum scour depth is the most critical parameter in bridge design and maintenance. Due to scouring and refilling of river-bed deposits, existing technologies face a challenge in measuring the maximum scour depth during a strong flood. In this study, a new methodology is proposed to integrate passive sensors into the process of bridge scour for real time monitoring during a flood event. Towards this end, a permanent magnet can be embedded in a natural rock to function as a passive sensor, which is herein referred to as a smart rock. The smart rock can be designed such that, once deployed around a bridge pier, it continually falls into the bottom of a gradually growing scour hole and thus registers the maximum scour depth with magnetic field strength measurements. Specifically, this paper discusses the societal needs for bridge scour monitoring, demonstrates the concept and the working principle of smart rocks, and summarizes the findings from various calibration and validation tests recently conducted at Missouri University of Science and Technology and at Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center. It was demonstrated that the magnetic field strength can be strongly correlated with the increase of scour depth over time. Properly designed smart rocks fell into and remained at the bottom of a scour hole, providing critical data in the process of scour development.
  Authors: Chen, Genda; Schafer, Brandon; Lin, Zhibin; Huang, Ying; Suaznabar, Oscar; Shen, Jerry
  Authors: Chen, Genda; Schafer, Brandon; Lin, Zhibin; Huang, Ying; Suaznabar, Oscar; Shen, Jerry
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Design; Hydraulics and Hydrology; Pavements
  Session: 728
  Paper Number: 13-4235
• Mixture Design Optimization of Low-Noise Pavements
  Abstract: The aim of this paper is to propose a tool to be used for the optimization of mix design of Low Noise Pavements (LNP). This aim has been achieved by developing an experimental model to predict rolling noise of a reference car tire as a function of composition and volumetric characteristics of mixes from in service pavements. By this way, the model enables to identify which composition parameters to operate on in order to improve acoustic performances of LNP.In order to define the experimental model, several types of asphalt surface layers, composed of hot asphalt mixes with different void contents, different aggregate grading and different bitumen percentages have been analyzed by in situ and laboratory tests. Acoustical properties of pavement surfaces have been evaluated by the Close Proximity Method (CPX) measurements. The model has been defined by using a multivariate non-linear regression technique to relate composition and volumetric characteristics of asphalt mixtures with rolling noise levels recorded at different speeds. This model - which is function of some significant parameters of the asphalt mixture composition and tire speed – has proven to be highly reliable in predicting car tire rolling noise; as it enables to identify mixture characteristics to be modified in order to reduce noise, in relation to the specific value of the mean traffic speed, it is particularly useful for the optimization of the mix design of LNP.
  Authors: Losa, Massimo; Leandri, Pietro; Licitra, Gaetano
  Authors: Losa, Massimo; Leandri, Pietro; Licitra, Gaetano
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 785
  Paper Number: 13-4240
• Importance of Insulation at Bottom of Mass Concrete Placed on Soil
  Abstract: Many a times, when mass concrete is placed directly on top of a soil layer, an insulation layer is not used at the bottom of the concrete. The rationale for this practice is that the soil on which the concrete is placed is already an insulating material. This study investigated the question of whether or not the absence of an insulating layer between the mass concrete and the soil may cause a problem with cracking of the concrete at early age. A three-dimensional finite element model was used for this investigation. The soil layer beneath the concrete was modeled to simulate realistic heat transfer between the concrete and the soil. To validate the developed model, a bridge pier footing constructed in the field in Florida was monitored for temperature development, and compared with the computed temperature distribution from the finite element model. The results show that the temperatures predicted by the model closely agree with those measured in the field. A parametric analysis was also conducted to determine the effects of insulation on the temperature distribution, induced tensile stresses and the cracking risk in the mass concrete. From the thermal cracking analysis, it is concluded that full insulation with adequate thickness should be used to reduce the temperature differentials and prevent cracking during the early age hydration of mass concrete.
  Authors: Do, Tu; Lawrence, Adrian M.; Tia, Mang; Bergin, Michael
  Authors: Do, Tu; Lawrence, Adrian M.; Tia, Mang; Bergin, Michael
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 427
  Paper Number: 13-4257
• Influence of Temperature on Tire-Pavement Friction-1: Laboratory Tests and Finite Element Modeling
  Abstract: The temperature development in tire-pavement contact region results in a complex relationship between temperature and friction. Tire rubber hysteresis on a road is considered to play an important role in countering skidding for a vehicle travelling at high speed. Past studies showed that the contribution from hysteresis component in comparison to adhesion has a larger influence on friction measurements. Variation in the tire temperature may result in unreliable interpretation of friction data particularly with continuous friction measuring equipment. Ever increasing need of driver safety poses challenges to the highway authorities to evaluate pavement conditions even more precisely. The present paper aims to develop a finite element model capable of assessing the effect of temperature on hysteric friction over a scan of real textured pavement surface. A dynamic analysis of tire rolling at any defined slip ratio, over a textured pavement surface and subsequent development of tire temperature would require a large computational time even for a powerful computer. Thus a new methodology using sequential analysis of static (for smooth surface) to dynamic (for slipping over rough surface) followed by a staggered temperature-analysis is developed. In this methodology, using the laboratory test data, a thermo-mechanical coupling model was developed to calculate the progressive development of temperature and its effect on the hysteretic friction. It was observed that the hysteretic friction of tire rubber decreases with increase in temperature.
  Authors: Srirangam, Santosh Kumar; Anupam, Kumar; Scarpas, Athanasios; Kösters, Anton
  Authors: Srirangam, Santosh Kumar; Anupam, Kumar; Scarpas, Athanasios; Kösters, Anton
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 552
  Paper Number: 13-4260
• Use of Monte Carlo Filtering Method for Regional Sensitivity Analysis of DARWin-ME
  Abstract: Since AASHTO released the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) for public review in 2004, many highway research agencies have performed sensitivity analyses using the prototype MEPDG design software. The information provided by the sensitivity analysis is essential for design engineers to better understand the MEPDG design model and to identify important input parameters for pavement design. In the past, both local and global sensitivity analyses have been carried out. Meanwhile, different sensitivity indices have been proposed for ranking the importance of the input parameters. However, both local and global sensitivity analyses have their limitations. In this paper, a regional sensitivity analysis method, Monte Carlo filtering (MCF), is presented. The MCF method maintains many advantages of the global sensitivity analysis, while focusing on the regional sensitivity of the MEPDG model near the design criteria rather than the entire problem domain. It was shown the information obtained from the MCF method is more helpful and accurate in guiding design engineers in pavement design practices. To demonstrate the methodology, a typical three-layer flexible pavement structure was used as an example. A detailed procedure to generate Monte Carlo runs using the new DARWin-ME software was provided. Based on the example, the strengths, practical issues, and applications of the MCF method are also discussed.
  Authors: Yang, Xiaoming; Wu, Zhong
  Authors: Yang, Xiaoming; Wu, Zhong
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 239
  Paper Number: 13-3842
• Calibration of Traffic Distributions and Model Coefficients Within MEPDG for Local Energy-Affected Roads in Wyoming
  Abstract: The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design guide was developed in 2004 under NCHRP Project 1-37B. Since this time, considerable efforts to calibrate the program and its performance prediction models for local conditions have taken place in multiple states attempting to implement the program. Currently, Wyoming DOT is in the process of implementing the MEPDG on the interstate and the state highway systems. In order to compliment that effort, this study attempted to develop a set of calibration coefficients and localized inputs that can be used on local paved roads. Wyoming is an energy rich state and has seen an increase in the amount of heavy truck traffic that its roadways encounter, thus requiring calibrated inputs for the MEPDG. Predicted distresses using the MEPDG were largely different from measured distresses on local paved roadways included in the study, particularly alligator cracking, rutting, transverse cracking, and longitudinal cracking. These distresses were measured on the local paved roads using Pathway Services Inc. and the surface imaging that it provided. Inputs for trial runs using the MEPDG were determined through work with local county road maintenance superintendents as well as previous research regarding climatic data in Wyoming. Localized traffic inputs were developed using Weigh-In Motion (WIM) data collected on non-interstate roadways across Wyoming. Once a significant error was found between predicted and measured distresses, calibration coefficients for alligator cracking, rutting, and longitudinal cracking were altered to reduce bias. The final calibration coefficients settled on in this study reduced the error between predicted measured distresses by nearly one hundred percent for the three calibrated models. The process followed in this study can be utilized by other local governments around the country to help them implement the MEPDG.
  Authors: Kasperick, Taylor; Ksaibati, Khaled
  Authors: Kasperick, Taylor; Ksaibati, Khaled
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 242
  Paper Number: 13-3866
• Flow Characteristics of Permeable Pavements by Water Demand and Supply
  Abstract: Permeable pavement is one of the widely used methods to recover the city¡¯s water circulation. The advantages of using permeable pavement is storage of rainwater, reduction of runoff, out-flow delay, and decrement of peak out-flow. Most of the cases out-flow characteristics of different types of permeable pavements were explained focus on runoff coefficient or the relationship between runoff and infiltration rate. With convenient theories which can explain out-flow characteristics and compare different pavement system considering water balance have been insufficient. In this study, an empirical model cumulative water flow versus time concept, is suggested to explain characteristics of out-flow of permeable pavement. This model is suggested to define and explain the variable by accumulating runoff at surface and outflow at subsurface over time that relates to accumulated rainfall. Through this model advantages of different permeable pavement can be compared and explained through rainfall simulation experiment.
  Authors: Cho, Yoon-Ho; Lin, Wuguang; Park, Dae-Geun
  Authors: Cho, Yoon-Ho; Lin, Wuguang; Park, Dae-Geun
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Design; Hydraulics and Hydrology; Pavements
  Session: 728
  Paper Number: 13-3867
• Spatial Approach for Assessing Energy-Related Impacts on Transportation Systems
  Abstract: Like other states around the country, Texas has experienced a boom in energy-related activities in recent years, particularly in wind power generation and extraction of oil and natural gas. While energy developments contribute to the state’s energy reliability, they also result in many short-term and long-term impacts on the state’s transportation system. Recently, Texas conducted an evaluation of impacts of energy developments on the state right of way, including pavement impacts, roadside impacts, operational and safety impacts, and economic impacts. During the evaluation, the research team developed a spatial approach for energy impact assessment and prediction based on a set of spatial databases of existing energy- and transportation- related datasets. The energy datasets included non-renewable energy datasets, renewable energy datasets, energy use datasets, and geology-related datasets. The transportation datasets included oversize/overweight routing and enforcement datasets, traffic safety datasets, transportation infrastructure datasets, and transportation planning datasets. The development of the spatial databases involved significant efforts of data collection and processing. The developed spatial databases enabled a wide range of queries and reports that helped the research team to understand the distribution and magnitude of energy activities in relation to transportation facilities. In addition to information about data sources and data processing methodologies, the spatial databases provided state transportation officials a useful framework for energy-related transportation planning and assessment of energy impacts and their trends. The paper includes valuable lessons that can help other states to fully utilize spatial data sources for understanding energy-related impacts and developing mitigation strategies.
  Authors: Li, Yingfeng; Quiroga, Cesar; Kraus, Edgar
  Authors: Li, Yingfeng; Quiroga, Cesar; Kraus, Edgar
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Data and Information Technology; Energy; Pavements
  Session: 534
  Paper Number: 13-3878
• Mean Profile Depth Analysis of Field and Laboratory Traffic-Loaded Chip Seal Surface Treatments
  Abstract: This paper presents a laboratory and field study to evaluate the mean profile depth (MPD) parameter that represents the surface texture of chip seal pavements. A three-dimensional laser profiler is used to determine the MPD values from both field pavement sections and field samples that have been tested in the laboratory using the third-scale model mobile loading simulator (MMLS3). Data obtained from five different field-constructed chip seal sections are used to evaluate the effects of different factors on the MPD of chip seal pavements. These factors include aggregate type, emulsion application rate, field versus MMLS3 traffic loading, and traffic volume. The results presented in this paper suggest that: (1) chip seal pavements constructed using lightweight aggregate have larger initial MPD values and faster reduction in MPD as a function of the number of wheel passes than those constructed using granite 78M aggregate; (2) MPD values obtained from a drier section (with drier indicating a lower emulsion-to-aggregate ratio than that of the sections it is being compared against) initially drop quickly and significantly, resulting in a much smaller ultimate MPD value; (3) in general, the MPD values obtained under MMLS3 loading are similar to those obtained from field traffic loading, thus allowing the translation of the laboratory MMLS3 data to the field response data; (4) a short rest period in a high traffic volume road retards the recovery of the binder and therefore leads to more permanent changes in the MPD; and (5) the initial measured MPD value can help predict aggregate loss performance.Keywords: mean profile depth, asphalt surface treatments, chip seal, traffic load
  Authors: Kim, Y. Richard; Adams, Javon Marcell
  Authors: Kim, Y. Richard; Adams, Javon Marcell
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-3884
• Enhancement of Permanent Deformation Model for Unbound Materials Used by DARwin-ME
  Abstract: This study deals with the assessment and enhancement of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) permanent deformation model for unbound materials. A preliminary sensitivity study of the current model was conducted which yielded some limitations when typical soil properties were used for a variety of AASHTO Classification groups. Based on the results from the sensitivity analysis, an enhanced mechanistic model was developed and is the main goal of this paper. The proposed model was developed based on a database consisting of a total of nearly 4,000 laboratory data points obtained from experiments previously conducted at Arizona State University. The database contains results of static triaxial shear strength and repeated load triaxial tests conducted on four subgrade materials from the State of Arizona. The materials included gravelly and sandy materials with a wide range of fines content (1% to 32%). The proposed model predicts the permanent to resilient strain ratio (åp/år) and was found to be a function of the degree of saturation, shear stress/strength ratio, number of stress repetitions, plasticity index of the soil and percentage passing US Standard No. 200 sieve. The model was found to be rational, unbiased, and statistically sound. Interestingly, the shear stress/strength ratio proved to be a better predictor than the resilient modulus, provided degree of saturation and properties of the fine material were considered.
  Authors: Zapata, Claudia E.; Bani Hashem, Elham
  Authors: Zapata, Claudia E.; Bani Hashem, Elham
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 293
  Paper Number: 13-3934
• Thermal Segregation: Causes and Effects on In-Place Density and Fatigue Performance of Asphalt Mixtures
  Abstract: Previous research has demonstrated that an excessive loss of mix temperature during hauling and paving operations can cause significant reductions in the mix consistency and therefore, in its ability to be compacted appropriately. This construction-related problem has been called thermal segregation. Twenty-eight asphalt paving projects were evaluated in the state of Alabama. Thermal profiles of the mat prior to its compaction were obtained by using an infrared bar attached to the paver. Based on the results, it was found that remixing operations of a materials transfer device were a key factor in the reduction of high temperature differentials.Field cores were taken from each ALDOT Division in order to evaluate the effect of thermal segregation on in-place densities. The results indicated a negative effect of thermal segregation on mat in-place densities. Additionally, samples were collected in order to compare the laboratory fatigue performance between cold and hot spots in terms of fatigue cycles, initial stiffness and fracture energy. The mix initial stiffness was determined to be the unique parameter affected by excessive air voids leading to the conclusion that cold spots can be more susceptible to fatigue cracking than hot spots.
  Authors: Fernández Cerdas, Sergio; Watson, Donald E.; Maghsoodloo, Saeed
  Authors: Fernández Cerdas, Sergio; Watson, Donald E.; Maghsoodloo, Saeed
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 657
  Paper Number: 13-3948
• Performance-Based Evaluation Criteria for Cementitious Partial-Depth Repair Materials in Cold Climates, I: Field Performance
  Abstract: Partial-depth repair (PDR) is a preventative maintenance treatment for portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements which is commonly applied early in the pavement service life to repair spalls and shallow deterioration. The selected repair material must be suitable for environmental and load conditions, and if required, allow faster opening to traffic and provide adequate bond to existing concrete. This paper introduces a characterization method for partial-depth repair based on field performance. A companion paper presents the results of laboratory analysis and laboratory performance-based evaluation criteria for PDR materials. This work is part of a project that aims to develop a performance-based procedure for evaluation of partial-depth repair materials in cold climates. This paper compares the field performance of six cementitious repair materials which were applies side-by-side on an urban arterial pavement section. Detailed condition surveys were conducted to evaluate the field performance of the repairs. The evaluation criteria were the presence of transverse and longitudinal cracks, spalling, separation between the material and concrete slab, surface finish of the repair area, and deterioration of the repair material. A ranking method is proposed to compare the field performance of the repair materials. Based on field observations during and after installation, a set of recommendations are presented to improve the practice of partial-depth repair treatment. Transportation agencies can incorporate these recommendations in their specifications for partial-depth repairs.
  Authors: Soliman, Haithem; Shalaby, Ahmed
  Authors: Soliman, Haithem; Shalaby, Ahmed
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 237
  Paper Number: 13-3953
• Performance-Based Evaluation Criteria for Cementitious Partial-Depth Repair Materials in Cold Climates, II: Laboratory Performance
  Abstract: Partial-depth repair (PDR) is used widely as a rehabilitation practice for concrete pavements. PDR is commonly applied to repair surface spalls and shallow deterioration of pavement slabs. Replacing the deteriorated concrete with new and durable material helps to restore the structure integrity, improve the quality of ride, and reduce moisture infiltration to subsurface layers of the pavement. PDR materials are typically selected based on field studies which do not provide a timely response to dynamic market changes and the availability of new products. This paper examines a laboratory evaluation method based on evaluating the compatibility between PDR material and concrete substrate. A companion paper presents the results of a field study and a field performance-based evaluation criteria for PDR materials. Bond between PDR material and concrete substrate, change in bond due to wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycling, and thermal compatibility were used to evaluate the performance of PDR material in cold climates. A ranking system was proposed based on the calculation of a score which combines the proposed evaluation criteria. This method can potentially provide a cost-effective and rapid alternative to field studies. Six cementitious PDR materials were evaluated using this method. Results were verified from an ongoing field study that started in 2010. A good correlation was found between the proposed simplified evaluation method and the field performance.
  Authors: Soliman, Haithem; Shalaby, Ahmed
  Authors: Soliman, Haithem; Shalaby, Ahmed
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 237
  Paper Number: 13-3977
• Mix Design Factors to Reduce Noise in Hot-Mix Asphalt
  Abstract: Noise generating from high trafficked roadways is a significant source of noise pollution in urban environments. As population centers continue to expand, so too does the demand for quiet, serviceable pavements. Traffic noise is derived from two basic origins: standard vehicle engine operation and the tire-road interaction. Reduction of the former has been a goal of automobile manufacturers since their introduction nearly a century ago, while little focused research has been applied to the latter, especially within the United States. Furthermore, research allocated to determining the mix design factors that significantly influence noise generation in asphalt pavements is almost non-existing. This study investigates the mix design and construction factors that influence noise generation in dense graded HMA by means of noise prediction models. Laser profiling systems are used to measure pavement surface texture parameters. Models that predict noise generation as a function of these surface texture parameters are used to demonstrate the sensitivity of noise generation to commonly encountered mix design and construction variables for HMA. After characterizing a wide range of mixtures produced in the lab and profiling a number of field sections, statistical analysis was conducted to determine the effect of mix variables on texture and estimated noise. Results indicate that reduction in noise at the tire-pavement interface can be achieved with simple consideration of specific mix design parameters including gradation, asphalt content, and nominal maximum aggregate size. The percentage of air voids in the mixture (compaction effort) was also found to significantly influence tire-road noise emission.
  Authors: Cong, Ling; Swiertz, Daniel; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Authors: Cong, Ling; Swiertz, Daniel; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 785
  Paper Number: 13-3983
• Enhanced Crack Segmentation Algorithm Using Three-Dimensional Pavement Data
  Abstract: Automatic pavement crack segmentation has gained attention among researchers and transportation agencies over the past two decades. However, most existing algorithms using 2-D pavement intensity images cannot provide satisfactory performance. With the advance of sensing technology, 3-D line laser pavement imaging systems have become available. The objective of this paper is to propose an enhanced dynamic optimization based algorithm utilizing the advantages of 3-D pavement data to improve crack segmentation. The proposed algorithm consists of three major stages. First, a two-step Gaussian filter is applied to remove outliers from the collected laser data and rectify the profile in order to reduce the influence of cross-slope and ruts on crack segmentation. Then, a rough crack segmentation stage is conducted to adaptively identify the crack regions of interest. Finally, a bounding box and major orientation for each valid crack region of interest will provide searching space and direction for the precise crack segmentation using the dynamic optimization based algorithm. Experimental tests are conducted using actual pavement data collected near Savannah, Georgia. The four most common types of pavement cracking (longitudinal, transverse, block, and alligator cracking) are tested, and the performance between original dynamic optimization algorithm and the proposed algorithm is compared. Experimental results show that the proposed algorithm only take about 1/4 of the average computation time of the original algorithm. Also, the accuracy of crack segmentation has been improved, since the proposed algorithm removes the unnecessary false positives and better handles cracks in multiple directions. Finally, conclusions are made and recommendations for future research are discussed.
  Authors: Jiang, Chenglong; Tsai, Yichang (James)
  Authors: Jiang, Chenglong; Tsai, Yichang (James)
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 475
  Paper Number: 13-4021
• Investigation into Top-Down Cracking of Asphalt Pavements in North Carolina
  Abstract: Top-down cracking has become a commonly reported cracking mechanism in asphalt pavements worldwide. In top-down cracking a crack initiates at the surface of an asphalt concrete pavement and propagates to the bottom of the asphalt pavement layer. Because the location and governing state of stress for top-down cracking are different than for bottom-up cracking, pavement cracking performance analysis needs to be robust enough to account for the complex mechanisms that are involved in top-down cracking. This study applies the viscoelastic continuum damage finite element model to the evaluation of two pavement sections in North Carolina where top-down cracking has been identified. Small specimen geometries are used to perform simplified viscoelastic continuum damage (S-VECD) testing on individual asphalt layers obtained from field cores. The S-VECD model and the Fourier finite element program are used together (as the VECD-FFE model) for pavement cracking performance simulations and employ the structure and layer material properties obtained from the two study pavements. The simulation results clearly support the propensity of these pavements to exhibit top-down cracking. In addition to this laboratory testing and analysis, the deflection-based method suggested by Uhlmeyer et al. is applied to the data obtained from pavement sections with known crack initiation locations in order to investigate the method¡¯s validity. The Uhlmeyer method uses the AREA parameter that is determined from falling weight deflectometer deflections, and pavement thicknesses. The analysis results show a clear difference in the AREA versus pavement thickness relationship between the pavement sections with top-down cracking and those with full-depth cracking.
  Authors: Park, Hong Joon; Kim, Y. Richard
  Authors: Park, Hong Joon; Kim, Y. Richard
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 377
  Paper Number: 13-4141
• Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Calibration for Pavement Rehabilitation in Oregon
  Abstract: The performance prediction models within the AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) were calibrated primarily using design inputs and performance data largely from the national Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) program. Before implementing the MEPDG at the state level, performance (distress) prediction models warrant detailed validation and calibration because of potential differences between national and local conditions. The Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) is in the process of implementing the new MEPDG for new pavement sections. However, the vast majority of pavement work conducted by ODOT involves rehabilitation of existing pavements. Hot mix asphalt concrete (AC) overlays are the preferred rehabilitation treatment for both flexible and rigid pavements in Oregon. However, like new work sections, AC overlays are also susceptible to fatigue cracking (alligator cracking and longitudinal cracking), rutting, and thermal cracking. Additional work is therefore needed to calibrate the design process for rehabilitation of existing pavement structures. A detailed comparison of predictive and measured distresses was made using recently MEPDG released software Darwin M-E (version 1.1). It was found that Darwin M-E predictive distresses did not accurately reflect measured distresses, calling for a local calibration of performance prediction models is warranted. While the local calibration of rutting and thermal cracking prediction models is currently underway, alligator (bottom-up) cracking and longitudinal (top-down) cracking models were calibrated. The Microsoft Excel Solver was employed to optimize the calibration coefficients by minimizing the sum of the squared errors (SSR) between the predictive and measured distresses. A comparison was made between the results before and after the calibration to assess the improvement in accuracy of the distress prediction models provided by the local calibration. Both alligator cracking and longitudinal cracking models were improved by local calibration. However, there was a high degree of variability between the predicted and measured distresses, especially for longitudinal cracking, even after the calibration. It is recommended that additional sites, which would contain more detailed inputs (mostly Level 1), be established to be included in the future calibration efforts and thus, improve the accuracy of the prediction models.
  Authors: Rahman, Md Shaidur; Williams, Ronald Christopher; Scholz, Todd
  Authors: Rahman, Md Shaidur; Williams, Ronald Christopher; Scholz, Todd
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 318
  Paper Number: 13-4347
• 4.75-mm SMA on Thin Durable Asphalt Overlays
  Abstract: This paper presents the development of stone matrix asphalt (SMA) with 4.75-mm nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) and alternative surfacing cross-section for an asphalt wearing course that may improve pavement performances while controlling costs by using locally available aggregates. The 4.75-mm NMAS dense-graded mix was previously used in a few states in order to reduce layer thickness and for its cost-effective application. However, due to its poor friction and limited performance, it was generally used as leveling binder and placed on low-volume roads. To improve surface texture and its performance, the 4.75-mm SMA is proposed for thinner asphalt overlays in this study. The ultimate goal of this study is to develop the 4.75-mm SMA and evaluate its performance as a wearing course under laboratory and field conditions. Test pavement sections were constructed in October and November 2010 in northern Illinois to evaluate its performance under actual traffic loading. On-site performance tests were conducted, and the results suggest its proper application as an efficient and cost effective wearing course that improves pavement performance.
  Authors: Son, Songsu; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Zehr, Thomas G.
  Authors: Son, Songsu; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Zehr, Thomas G.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 517
  Paper Number: 13-4378
• Effects of Emulsion Type on Bending-Beam Rheometer Field-Aged Asphalt Concrete Beams
  Abstract: One of the functions of asphalt emulsions is to rejuvenate the surface of an aged asphalt concrete roadway. However, it is unclear as to the effectiveness of different types of asphalt emulsions, as most current testing is empirical in nature and does not give an indication of the performance of the asphalt emulsion. Using asphalt concrete beams from the surface of a roadway in the Bending Beam Rheometer, however, can give an indication of an asphalt emulsion’s ability to decrease the stiffness and affect the creep rate or change in stiffness (m-value) of the roadway samples. Seven emulsions at three application rates on two roadways were examined to identify the effect of emulsion on the stiffness and m-value of asphalt concrete. There was no easily identified difference between the three application rates for either field section or any of the emulsions. However, the m-value tended to increase with the addition of emulsion and the stiffness tended to decrease. This indicates that the BBR can be used to determine the effect of asphalt emulsion on the creep change and the stiffness of field samples in the Bending Beam Rheometer.
  Authors: Braham, Andrew; Howard, Isaac L.; Barham, Jason
  Authors: Braham, Andrew; Howard, Isaac L.; Barham, Jason
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-4384
• International Roughness Index Models for Hot-Mix Asphalt Overlay Treatment of Flexible and Composite Pavements for Louisiana
  Abstract: Timely rehabilitation and preservation of pavement systems are imperative to maximize benefits in terms of driver’s comfort and safety. However, the effectiveness of any treatment largely depends on the time of treatment and triggers governed by treatment performance models. This paper presents the development of International Roughness Index (IRI) models for overlay treatment of composite and flexible pavements in the state of Louisiana. Various factors affecting the IRI of overlay treatment were identified. New climatic factors were developed and regression analysis was conducted and IRI prediction models were generated. The models provided a good agreement between the measured and predicted IRI values with majority of data within 5% of prediction error. The models could be used as a good pavement management tool for pavement maintenance and rehabilitation actions.
  Authors: Khattak, Mohammad Jamal; Nur, Mohammad Abdullah; Bhuyan, Mohammad Reza-ul Karim; Gaspard, Kevin
  Authors: Khattak, Mohammad Jamal; Nur, Mohammad Abdullah; Bhuyan, Mohammad Reza-ul Karim; Gaspard, Kevin
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-4396
• Surface Characteristics of Ultrathin Bonded Wearing Course Preservation Treatments
  Abstract: Ultrathin bonded wearing course (UBWC) has been used by many states as a pavement preservation treatment, particularly on high traffic volume roads. This paper presents the results of a research conducted to evaluate the surface properties of UBWC pavements placed by the Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT). Four UBWC test sections were selected with respect to their service times, traffic volumes, and roadway functions. Surface friction testing was conducted every six months since the completion of construction. Field testing was also conducted to determine the characteristics of surface macrotexture. The type and gradation of aggregates used in the UBWC mixes were examined to identify their effects on the friction properties of UBWC. It was found that UBWC is capable of providing sufficient and consistent skidding resistance to allow quick opening to traffic. The friction numbers in the UBWC test sections tended to peak approximately 6 months earlier compared to conventional HMA mixes. The mean profile depth (MPD) of macrotexture for UBWC pavements is around 1.0 mm, which is much greater than that for conventional 9.5-mm HMA pavements, and very close to that for SMA pavements. However, the microtexture may play an important role in the development of UBWC surface friction. UBWC can provide sound, durable surface friction, but requires highly polish-resistant aggregates.
  Authors: Li, Shuo; Yang, Yonghong; Guan, Bowen; Zhao, Guangyuan; Harris, Dwayne; Jiang, Yi; Noureldin, A. Samy
  Authors: Li, Shuo; Yang, Yonghong; Guan, Bowen; Zhao, Guangyuan; Harris, Dwayne; Jiang, Yi; Noureldin, A. Samy
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 552
  Paper Number: 13-4436
• Evaluation of the Structural Response of Cracked Pavements at CEDEX Test Track
  Abstract: Flexible pavement structural response is typically modeled by using multilayer linear elastic theory. This is applicable to almost all mechanistic-empirical design procedures, but also in other fields of pavement engineering, like the interpretation of deflection data in order to assess pavement structural condition. The applicability of this theory, even with some limitations, has been validated for new or undamaged pavements, where the hypothesis of continuity is reasonably realistic. But still an effort is required in order to understand the structural response of damaged pavements, where the presence of discrete cracks is not compatible with continuum mechanics theories.Three flexible sections were instrumented with sensors in order to measure the structural response under moving vehicles at CEDEX test track. The response was systematically measured in terms of different response variables during a full-scale experiment where 1.3 million loads where applied. Structural response measured at the beginning of the experiment, when asphalt damage was null, was used as a reference in order to compare the evolution during the test. It was shown that the evolution of the different response variables can be explained by continuum mechanics, in particular by linear elasticity, as soon as asphalt damage is uniformly distributed in the material. As soon as discrete cracking appears, response stars to deviate from that predicted by multilayer linear elastic models.The importance of adopting a rational approach for the determination of the modulus of the asphalt layers is also shown in this paper.
  Authors: Mateos, Angel; Ayuso, Javier P.; Cadavid Jáuregui, Belén
  Authors: Mateos, Angel; Ayuso, Javier P.; Cadavid Jáuregui, Belén
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 574
  Paper Number: 13-4458
• Effects of High-Modulus Asphalt Binders on Performance of Typical Asphalt Pavement Structures
  Abstract: High modulus asphalt binders (HMABs) have been widely studied in the last 10 years. One of the most significant advantages of HMABs is their rutting resistance. In this study other factors related to the performance of HMABs in pavement engineering were studied: stiffness, elastic recovery, asphalt layer thickness reduction, workability and thermal cracking resistance. One neat binder, one hard-grade paving asphalt binder, three high modulus modifiers, and linear styrene-butadiene-styrene were included. Rotational viscosity, frequency sweep, elastic recovery and bending beam rheometer tests were performed. MEPDG software (Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide) was selected to analyze whether HMABs could reduce the thickness of wearing or binder course. Workability was evaluated by measuring the effect of mixing temperatures of HMABs using a newly proposed method for evaluating coating using coarse aggregate water absorption. Results showed that HMABs had higher stiffness and elasticity than neat binder (Performance Grade 64-22). Based on MEPDG analysis for the same total pavement permanent deformation, it was estimated that the asphalt layer thickness was reduced by 8.9 to 27.9% by replacing the neat binder with HMABs in the study. Pavements constructed with HMABs had slightly less bottom up cracking than pavements constructed with neat binders. The coarse aggregate absorption method provided evidence that acceptable coating could be achieved at reasonable mixing temperatures for HMABs. A drawback of HMABs was the slight decrease in the low temperature performance grade. The application of HMABs where the low design temperature of the pavement is lower than -16 ¡ãC should be with caution.
  Authors: Geng, Han; Clopotel, Cristian; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Authors: Geng, Han; Clopotel, Cristian; Bahia, Hussain U.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 377
  Paper Number: 13-4423
• Comparison between wide base single tire and dual tires assembly based on experimental pavement response and predicted damage
  Abstract: Past studies suggest that Wide-Base Single Tires (WBST: 455/55R22.5) induce pavement strains, which are different than duals of similar sizing, some higher and some lower depending on the direction and the location in the pavement. An experimental assessment of strain basins occurring at various positions within the hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layer as well as within the pavement unbound layers was undertaken to further this understanding. The method and results of this assessment along with the pavement damage predicted using available models is presented in this paper. Four failure mechanisms were considered; HMA rutting, bottom-up and top-down fatigue cracking, and structural rutting. Testing was conducted at two sites on a total of four different roads over a range of loads, pressures, and temperatures, using WBST and different sizes of dual tires. Analysis of data showed several critical strain zones near the tire edges and at the tire center. Optic fiber sensors allowed analyzing these phenomena. HMA rutting was calculated considering vertical shear strain near the surface under the edge of the tires. The other failure mechanisms were calculated using maximum strain. The results predict that the WBST tested may induce less damage in the upper part of the HMA layer and more damage considering fatigue cracking and rutting of soils and unbound materials. The data collected was from specific tires and all tests were conducted only under smooth, steady-state rolling conditions. Thus, results should not be generalized to all tires nor extrapolated to predict actual field performance.
  Authors: Grellet, Damien; Doré, Guy; Bilodeau, Jean-Pascal; Gauliard, Thomas
  Authors: Grellet, Damien; Doré, Guy; Bilodeau, Jean-Pascal; Gauliard, Thomas
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 554
  Paper Number: 13-4494
• DARwin-ME Evaluation of Flexible Pavements in Louisiana
  Abstract: This paper presents a recent study on using the DARWin-ME pavement design software to evaluate the performance of typical Louisiana flexible pavement structures as compared to pavement performance data available in the pavement management system. The overall comparison results indicated that the DARWin-ME rutting models over-predicted the total rutting for Louisiana flexible pavements; whereas, both fatigue and smoothness models in DARWin-ME seemed to be adequate for most pavements evaluated. A special optimization approach was used to determine a set of preliminary local calibration factors for DARWin-ME rutting models based on Louisiana conditions. A sensitivity analysis of DARWin-ME was also performed to determine if a small variation in design inputs would significantly affect the design asphalt concrete layer thicknesses. The results revealed that a 20 percent variation among each of primary design inputs could result in a design thickness variation of approximately 1.5 in.
  Authors: Wu, Zhong; Yang, Xiaoming; Zhang, Zhongjie
  Authors: Wu, Zhong; Yang, Xiaoming; Zhang, Zhongjie
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 318
  Paper Number: 13-4516
• Influence of Temperature on Tire-Pavement Friction-2: Analyses
  Abstract: Past experimental studies show that the tire-pavement friction values are related to tire surrounding conditions such as pavement temperature, ambient temperature, contained air temperature and surface characteristic of pavement. Various road agencies use correlation factors to estimate frictional characteristics of the road tested in various temperature conditions. These correlation factors are mainly based on the experience and field test measurements which has a very limited scope in terms of transferability. This paper studies frictional behavior of test tire under different surrounding temperature conditions using the finite element model. The scope of this research is to analyze the effect of pavement temperature, ambient temperature and contained air temperature on frictional measurements. Finite Element models of fully and partially skidding tires over different asphalt pavement surfaces, namely, Porous Asphalt, Ultra-Thin Surface and Stone Mastic Asphalt are analyzed. It was observed that pavement with high macrotexture results in high hysteretic friction. It was also observed that a higher pavement temperature, ambient temperature and contained air temperature would result in a lower hysteretic friction for a given pavement surface and a given tire slip ratio. On the other hand, a lower tire slip ratio and a pavement with higher macrotexture would result in a higher friction. This study shows that a critical combination of these factors may decrease the friction values significantly.
  Authors: Anupam, Kumar; Srirangam, Santosh Kumar; Scarpas, Athanasios; Kasbergen, Cor
  Authors: Anupam, Kumar; Srirangam, Santosh Kumar; Scarpas, Athanasios; Kasbergen, Cor
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 384
  Paper Number: 13-4521
• Modeling and Calibration of Concrete Slab Interfacial Effects
  Abstract: For many years, concrete pavement construction, whether new or overlay, has been done with a variety of layer interfaces ranging from strongly cemented having a high degree of shear strength to completely unstabilized having only internal frictional resistance between the individual particles. In this regard, both past and present design methodologies have been limited in their capability to address the bond between the slab and the underlying layers – essentially considering either unbonded or fully bonded conditions for design purposes. However, this limitation ignores a wide range of partially bonded conditions that can exist between these two limits that may consist of a variety of combinations of different levels of friction and adhesion. For most instances of design, unbonded conditions are principally hypothetical where qualification of the amount of adhesive strength and frictional restraint that develops along the interfacial between the slab and the underlying layer is key to the characterization of slab behavior resulting for varying degrees of partial bond. This paper addresses a framework to model the effects of the concrete pavement slab/subbase interface for design purposes relative to these and other factors as they may pertain to the prediction of short and long term performance.
  Authors: Bari, Muhammad Ehsanul; Zollinger, Dan G.; Jung, Youn su
  Authors: Bari, Muhammad Ehsanul; Zollinger, Dan G.; Jung, Youn su
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 236
  Paper Number: 13-4607
• Assessment of Reliability and Load Factor Design Approach Against Fatigue Cracking in Flexible Pavements
  Abstract: A reliability based approach to design flexible pavements against bottom-up and top-down fatigue cracking has been developed. The approach involves the use of load factors applied to the nominal fatigue cracking values to obtain the failure values in field. The uncertainty in input parameters has been modeled via Weibull and Lognormal distribution of the damage index with different values of skewness and coefficient of variation. The field data from Long Term Pavement Performance database have been used to model the uncertainty in prediction between the nominal (predicted) and the field cracking. The probability density function of fatigue cracking was found to be unsymmetrical in nature; the skewness of the distribution changes with the level of damage. The nonlinear limit state performance function has been used to determine the reliabilities and the load factors using Monte Carlo simulation. The differences between the failure values obtained from the standard Gaussian assumption and the simulation have been observed. Design charts and load factor tables have been developed which can be used with the newly developed Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide for designing new and rehabilitated pavements. Finally, the use of the load factors in flexible pavement design has been presented via practical examples.
  Authors: Bhattacharjee, Sudip
  Authors: Bhattacharjee, Sudip
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 242
  Paper Number: 13-4632
• Combined Effect of Three-dimensional Tire-Pavement Contact Load and Thermal Load on Cracking Performance of Heavy-Duty Asphalt Pavements
  Abstract: Top-down cracking (TDC) has been well recognized as a major distress for the heavy duty asphalt pavements yet the mechanism is still not fully understood. Studies indicated the non-uniform tire-pavement contact stress might play a significant role in the initiation of TDC, and thermal stress due to temperature gradient might contribute to the initiation and development of TDC. For this concern, a sophisticated three-dimensional (3-D) viscoelastic finite element model was developed to study cracking performance of heavy duty flexible pavements under combined 3-D tire-pavement contact stress and thermal stress induced by temperature gradient. It was found the stress distribution in asphalt concrete (AC) layer is continuously changing as the pavement is loaded due to rheological behavior of AC. Significant maximum principal tensile stresses are presented at the edge of tire at AC surface, which may result in an accumulation of dissipated creep strain energy (DCSE) over time (or with number of loads) and may eventually lead to the initiation of a crack. And pavement near-surface responses associated with top-down cracking under 3-D contact pressure is more severe as compared to uniform contact pressure. Comparing with pavements without thermal effect, the negative temperature gradient increases the potential for top-down cracking while the positive temperature gradient increases the potential for bottom-up cracking. The study may provide some meaningful insight into crack mechanisms and help improve current heavy duty asphalt pavement design procedures for cracks.Key words: Viscoelastic; 3-D; TDC; Temperature; Contact Stress; Pavement.
  Authors: Wang, Guangming; Morian, Dennis A.; Frith, Douglas
  Authors: Wang, Guangming; Morian, Dennis A.; Frith, Douglas
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 242
  Paper Number: 13-4699
• Calibration and Application of Treatment Performance Models in Pavement Management System
  Abstract: To utilize the pavement management system (PMS) for maintenance strategy decision making, it is necessary to use locally calibrated performance models and other related parameters. In this study, the performance family models of typical asphalt resurfacing treatments used in Tennessee were calibrated for the PMS by investigating historical maintenance projects. Multiple regression method was employed to analyze the influence of pre-treatment PSI, traffic level, overlay thickness and milling depth on the post-treatment performance curves. The specific designs of asphalt resurfacings and performance classes were determined based on the regression analysis. Then, the performance curves for each identified treatment methods at different performance classes were established and calibrated for the PMS. Rehabilitation trigger values, typical treatments and decisions trees for pavement with different functional classes were determined and designed by investigating the historical maintenance projects. A network optimization using calibrated models and determined parameters was conducted by the PMS.Investigation on the treatment performance models indicated that pavement with lower pre-treatment roughness, thick overlay and deep milling deteriorated slower. Pavement with high traffic level tended to have lower post-treatment roughness. The distress condition decreases much faster than smoothness. Network optimization analysis of the PMS indicated the most cost-effective maintenance strategy can be determined by conducting a network optimization analysis with a sufficient high budget limit, in which the highest annual cost is lower than the budget limit. Several suggestions on how to use the budgets according to the HPMA analysis include combining cost-effective and worst-first, rolling over budget and redistributing budget among the four regions.
  Authors: Dong, Qiao; Huang, Baoshan; Richards, Stephen H.
  Authors: Dong, Qiao; Huang, Baoshan; Richards, Stephen H.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-4745
• Use of Variable Rate Spreader Bar to Minimize Wheelpath Bleeding for Asphalt-Rubber Chip Seal Applications
  Abstract: For over thirty five years, the California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS) has been placing Asphalt-Rubber Chip Seals (ARCS) as an effective preventative maintenance strategy, for minor and major road projects, where low and high truck traffic and high pavement temperatures have been prevalent. The performance of chip seals is known to be affected by two critical distresses: (1) raveling, and (2) bleeding, particular in the wheel path. In order to avoid these types of distresses it is critical to select proper application rates of binders and aggregates and to implement a clear quality control plan with effective verification of application rates. Due to the inherent differences in traffic loading in the wheel bath and out of the wheel path, it is commonly observed that most bleeding and flushing is observed in the wheel path. This has prompted the need for varying the application rates between the wheel path and non-wheel path areas. This paper includes a review of several field studies in which both uniform and variable application rate were used to construct Asphalt Rubber Binder chip seals in California. Observation of early (after construction) and late (up to 6 years) performances are reported to show the importance of using a Variable Rate Spreader Bar (VRSB) in mitigating premature bleeding in the wheel path. The study also includes development of a field calibration test method recommended as a modification of the CTM 339-2000 and a recommendation to require the use of a VRSB calibrated according to the newly developed procedure
  Authors: Johannes, Petrina Tutumina
  Authors: Johannes, Petrina Tutumina
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-4379
• Stiffness Evolution of Granular Materials Stabilized with Foamed Bitumen and Cement
  Abstract: From the literature it is possible to find two trends regarding the stiffness evolution of the Foamed Bitumen Stabilized/Recycled mixtures. The first trend indicates that once the foamed bitumen mix reaches a constant value due to curing process, the stiffness decreases with time due to load cycles. The second trend indicates that stiffness remains constant after curing process. In this research, the stiffness evolution of foamed bitumen mixes stabilized with different bitumen and cement contents is studied. The stiffness was measured using the Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test (ITFT). Results indicate that once the foamed bitumen mix reaches a constant value due to curing process, the stiffness will decrease or keeps constant depending on the stress-level applied to the foamed bitumen layer. If the stress-level is lower than a specific value, the stiffness of the mix will remain constant at a value very close to the initial stiffness. If the stress-level is greater than a specific value the stiffness of the mix will decrease gradually. Also, the reduction rate of the stiffness will be greater as the stress-level is higher. The analysis of results from mixes with different bitumen and cement contents allow identifying the effect of both stabilizing agents in the long-term stiffness.
  Authors: Halles, Felipe; Thenoux, Guillermo; Gonzalez, Alvaro Andres
  Authors: Halles, Felipe; Thenoux, Guillermo; Gonzalez, Alvaro Andres
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 740
  Paper Number: 13-4177
• Short-Term Kettle and Field Aging Investigation of Hot-Poured Crack Sealants
  Abstract: Hot-poured sealant treatments for cracks in flexible pavements are the most cost effective and commonly used pavement maintenance technique. The performance and longevity of such treatments after installation is heavily dependent on adhesive and cohesive properties of the sealing materials. Crack sealants exhibit significant potential for degradation due to aging that occurs due to heating during installation and due to weathering during their service life. Understanding the effects of aging on the rheological and mechanical properties of sealants is essential for prediction of their field performance. This paper investigates the use of performance-based tests to evaluate the short-term installation and long-term field aging effects. Performance based tests were developed for a sealant grading system similar to Superpave grading system for asphalt binders. Short-term aging was evaluated using samples collected from the kettles at regular intervals. Field aging was evaluated using samples obtained from the field after one year. Eight types of sealants were sampled from a test section where they were exposed to direct weathering effects including solar radiation, temperature variations, and moisture. Field samples include sealant extracted from routed and sealed cracks. The samples were sliced into two fractions in order to investigate differential aging of the sealant. The top 5 mm of sealant is designated as “crust”, while the remaining 15 mm are designated as “bottom”. All samples were subjected to a testing protocol including viscosity, flexural creep, and adhesion tests. Results indicate strong aging gradation from top to bottom in the samples collected from the routs 6-9 months after installation. An equation was proposed to predict average aging properties and estimate degree of field aging. This equation can be used to develop predictive performance models for sealants considering the intensity and gradation of aging on fundamental properties such as stiffness and viscosity.
  Authors: Ozer, Hasan; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Castro, Guillermo Elizalde; Yousefi, Seyed Saleh
  Authors: Ozer, Hasan; Al-Qadi, Imad L.; Castro, Guillermo Elizalde; Yousefi, Seyed Saleh
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 698
  Paper Number: 13-4485
• Significance of Zinc Levels in Stormwater Runoff from Permeable Friction Course Pavement Overlays
  Abstract: There is increasing use of tire-rubber in hot-mix asphalt and increasing use of permeable friction course (PFC) or open-graded friction courses (OGFC) as pavement surface layers. The addition of tire-rubber to PFC mixtures seems like a win-win because the properties of the asphalt mixture are improved and the disposal of tires into landfills minimized. However, since tire rubber contains zinc compounds and some laboratory tests have shown tires to leach zinc, the inclusion of tire-rubber may result in higher zinc concentrations in stormwater from pavements with substantial tire-rubber content. Water quality data for roadway sites in California reveal a pattern of rubberized hot mix asphalt surface layers having significantly-higher zinc levels compared to pavements without rubber materials. Additionally, water quality measurements taken on a section of highway in Austin revealed significantly higher zinc concentrations in runoff from PFC with crumb rubber compared to PFC without crumb rubber. These findings reveal how choice of pavement materials could affect stormwater quality.
  Authors: Barrett, Michael; Larsen, Katie A.
  Authors: Barrett, Michael; Larsen, Katie A.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Hydraulics and Hydrology; Pavements
  Session: 565
  Paper Number: 13-4721
• Portable Seismic Pavement Analyzer for Paving Quality Assurance
  Abstract: Standard practice for evaluating flexible pavement construction focuses primarily on the compacted relative density of the pavement layer as means for quality assurance. Despite this trend, numerous studies show that mixtures compacted at the same density level may perform differently with respect to durability and mechanical stability. This paper investigates the potential of using the portable seismic pavement analyzer (PSPA) as quality assurance method during construction. The PSPA is used to estimate the seismic modulus of the pavement structure based on response to seismic excitation. The method repeatability was found to be acceptable; however, temperature must be factored for field quality assurance. The results show that seismic modulus testing is capable of identifying problematic areas within the pavement; specifically along the centerline longitudinal joint. The PSPA measurements were successfully correlated to the asphalt mixture voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) as determined in the laboratory, while the relative density showed no correlation with any of the mixture volumetric properties. Preliminary guidelines are proposed for using the PSPA as a tool for quality assurance to ensure that the final product meets expected service loads.
  Authors: Faheem, Ahmed Fatin; Schmitt, Robert; Al-Qadi, Imad L.
  Authors: Faheem, Ahmed Fatin; Schmitt, Robert; Al-Qadi, Imad L.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 207
  Paper Number: 13-4791
• Influence of Tire Configuration on Pavement Response and Predicted Distress
  Abstract: The 2011 TRB paper, titled "Pavement Shear Strain Response to Dual and Wide-Base Tires," (1) described the background, objective, analysis and partial results for the Hot Weather Shear loading tests conducted on the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) Specific Pavement Study (SPS-8) asphalt concrete (AC) sections at the Ohio Test Road (OTR) on State Route 23 in Delaware County, OH. However the results presented in that paper were limited to one strain rosette sensor location. This paper describes analysis results and performance predictions from all other sensor locations.The data from all rosette sensors was analyzed for one speed and inflation pressure condition. The pavement response software 3D-Move was used to verify that measured values followed expected trends The comparison of strain in various direction at different locations of pavements reveals the difference and similarity of different tire configurations. Fatigue cracking and rutting models were used to present the damage brought by different tires to experimental sections. The effects of wide-base and dual tires to flexible pavement responses from two structural conditions are presented. Impacts on predicted fatigue and permanent deformation as a result of tire configuration are included, showing that pavement structure has a more influential role than tire configuration.
  Authors: Xue, Wenjing; Weaver, Eric
  Authors: Xue, Wenjing; Weaver, Eric
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 554
  Paper Number: 13-4810
• Assessing the Impacts of Energy Developments on Rural Texas Highway Infrastructure
  Abstract: While recent energy developments have been a boon for the Texas economy, the rush to develop oil and gas resources has taken a toll on low-volume roads throughout the state. The impacts of heavy truck traffic on roadway infrastructure in the Eagle Ford Shale and Barnett Shale plays are obvious in the cracks, potholes, and other major distresses that manifest in pavements throughout these areas. Many of Texas’ Farm-to-Market, Ranch-to-Market, and local county roadway systems are not designed to withstand the heavy loads arising from energy resource development. Rapid energy resource exploitation will continue to strain agencies responsible for maintaining and preserving roadways until measures are taken to implement infrastructure impact plans, road-user agreements, or other measures to obtain compensation for damage from heavy haulers.This paper explores three approaches for partnership between energy companies, county officials, and other organizations. The proactive, performance-based approach strengthens pavements prior to energy development. The reactive, performance-based approach assesses impact fees associated with road maintenance after the damage. The third approach assesses impact fees that are not attached to actual roadway deterioration. The authors discuss what is currently being done in Texas and suggest recommendations for future work. With future exploration and development expected throughout Texas and in other regions of the United States, execution of roadway use agreements will be critical to maintaining adequate levels of service and preserving strong working relationships between the energy industry and county governments charged with preserving roadway assets.
  Authors: Miller, Timothy D.; Sassin, James M.
  Authors: Miller, Timothy D.; Sassin, James M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Data and Information Technology; Energy; Pavements
  Session: 534
  Paper Number: 13-4834
• Factors Influencing Life-cycle Performance of Pavement Utilizing Decision Tree Analysis
  Abstract: Accurate prediction of pavement performance during its lifecycle plays an important role in selecting the most cost-effective solution during pavement type selection process. However, State Highway Agencies (SHAs) have reported lack of consensus between asphalt and concrete industries on life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) models utilized for pavement type selection. This is despite the fact that the Oklahoma Department of Transportation (ODOT) along with other state DOTs stores a large amount of highway project data throughout the life-cycle of highway projects. This paper applies the decision tree analysis in data mining to the historical pavement treatment data set available in the ODOT in order to identify the timing of maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) activities. The data is divided into training and validation data sets. Therefore the models are created utilizing the training data set then their complexities are optimized to minimize the classification errors utilizing the validation data set. The results of the classification trees indicate that categorizing performance of pavement sections based on the type of material and level of traffic create errors in predicting the performance of pavements. Utilizing the historical pavement treatment projects, new criteria are identified in this paper that predicts the timing of M&R strategies adopted by ODOT. Since decision tree models developed in this paper are based on the actual treatment strategies performed by ODOT, it is expected that classifying pavement sections based on these factors help in predicting the future performance of pavement more accurately.
  Authors: Abdollahipour, Saeed; Jeong, David Hyung Seok
  Authors: Abdollahipour, Saeed; Jeong, David Hyung Seok
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 659
  Paper Number: 13-4983
• Development and Initial Testing of Total Pavement Acceptance Device
  Abstract: A new, multi-function pavement testing device has been developed by a joint effort between the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), the Center for Transportation Research (CTR) at the University of Texas at Austin (UT) and the Texas Transportation Institute (TTI) at Texas A&M University. This new device is called the Total Pavement Acceptance Device (TPAD). The objective of TPAD testing is to nondestructively and nonintrusively investigate the total pavement’s structural adequacy. The multiple functions of the TPAD presently include the following measurement capabilities: (1) rolling dynamic deflectometer (RDD), (2) ground penetrating radar (GPR), (3) global positioning system (GPS), (4) pavement surface temperature, (5) digital video imaging of pavement and right-of-way conditions, and (6) longitudinal survey offsets through a distance measurement instrument (DMI). The TPAD is designed to perform continuous measurements at speeds around 3.2 to 4.8 km/hr (2 to 3 mph), with increased speeds planned in future developments. The main developmental efforts have focused on developing: (1) a moving platform with precise speed control in the range of 0.8 to 16 km/hr (0.5 to 10 mph), (2) automated RDD pavement loading and deflection sensing systems, (3) an improved analysis scheme for processing RDD deflection data on the fly over incremental distances of 6 to 30 cm (0.2 to 1 ft) and (4) a new data collection system that integrates the results from all measurement functions and displays them in real time. Descriptions of the equipment and example sets of continuous RDD pavement deflections and GPR evaluations are presented.
  Authors: Stokoe II, Kenneth H.; Lee, Jung-Su; Nam, Boo Hyun; Scullion, Tom; Liu, Wenting; Leidy, Joe; Claros, German J.
  Authors: Stokoe II, Kenneth H.; Lee, Jung-Su; Nam, Boo Hyun; Scullion, Tom; Liu, Wenting; Leidy, Joe; Claros, German J.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 260
  Paper Number: 13-5040
• Investigation of Effects of Porous Pavement on Traffic Noise and Traffic Noise Prediction
  Abstract: The U.S. DOT / Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Traffic Noise Model® (TNM®) is currently missing the effect of sound absorbing pavements on predicted noise levels, since a single EFR value representing acoustically hard ground is used in the sound propagation/ground reflection algorithms. With acoustically hard ground, most of the sound from vehicles is reflected. For porous pavements (pavements with more 15% interconnected air voids), sound incident on the pavement is partially absorbed, potentially reducing the noise level for receivers along the roadway relative to that for a non-porous surface. Results of the investigations described in this paper indicate that the sound absorption produced by porous pavements will have an effect on both measured and predicted traffic noise levels. The work shows that more accurate TNM-predicted sound levels can be achieved by properly accounting for the sound absorption of pavement, the effect of sound absorbing pavement is not insubstantial, and predictions can be made as to the effect of sound absorbing pavement by using modeling and/or measurement techniques.
  Authors: Rochat, Judith L.; Donavan, Paul
  Authors: Rochat, Judith L.; Donavan, Paul
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 785
  Paper Number: 13-5069
• Rheology of Asphalt Emulsion Residues and Its Relationship to Elastic Recovery in AASHTO T301
  Abstract: Several researchers investigated the use of dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) based tests to replace elastic recovery test using a ductility bath for PG graded modified asphalt binders. Some studies reported good correlation between percent recovery of multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR) test (AASHTO TP70) and elastic recovery of AASHTO T301 using a ductility bath for PG binders. In this study, DSR based rheological tests of 20 different asphalt emulsion residues were performed and its relationships with elastic recovery (AASHTO T301) were investigated. Out of 20 emulsions, 8 are hard pen base asphalt emulsions of which 2 are polymer modified. Out of 12 non-hard pen base asphalt emulsions, 6 are polymer modified. In strain sweep test from 2% to 52%, it was observed that emulsions prepared of hard pen base asphalt have relatively lower strain tolerances. Using frequency sweep data, complex modulus master curves were constructed at 25°C for overall rheological behavior. Temperature sweep of phase angle from 52°C to 94°C showed that maximum phase angle in the range of 75° to 85° may be used as a criterion for polymer identification. Burgers model parameters were obtained through fitting of 1st creep and recovery cycle and two parameters, Maxwell viscosity and Kelvin viscosity were investigated for polymer identification. From multiple stress analyses, it was observed that the relationship between creep stress and percent recovery (MSCR) is negative and logarithmic. Finally, the highest coefficient of determination of linear correlation was obtained between MSCR percent recovery at 10°C and elastic recovery (AASHTO T301) at 58°C. Coefficient of determination, R2 values obtained for 0.1 kPa and 3.2 kPa creep stresses are 0.961 and 0.938, respectively. Therefore, MSCR at 10°C has been recommended as a criterion for polymer identification. At 0.1kPa creep stress, a minimum percent recovery of 25 and at 3.2kPa, a minimum percent recovery of 9 is recommended to identify the presence of polymer.
  Authors: Wasiuddin, Nazimuddin Mohammad; Salehi Ashani, Saeid; Kabir, Md Sharear; Abadie, Christopher David; King, William; Mohammad, Louay N.
  Authors: Wasiuddin, Nazimuddin Mohammad; Salehi Ashani, Saeid; Kabir, Md Sharear; Abadie, Christopher David; King, William; Mohammad, Louay N.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-5071
• Assessment of Emission Costs due to Maintenance and Rehabilitation to Reduce Pavement Roughness
  Abstract: Asphalt pavements constitute a major portion of the transportation network of the United States and play an important role in the US economy. Poor roadway conditions create user delay costs and additional user costs i.e. fuel, vehicle repair and maintenance, tire wear, depreciation, etc. due to the effects of pavement roughness. A previous investigation showed that pavement rehabilitation resulting in maintaining smoother pavement could result in as much as a 50-to-1 return on investment (ROI); however, the study did not consider the environmental impacts of construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation (CMR) activities. In this study, emissions due to CMR activities and pavement roughness have been quantified in monetary terms using PaLATE and MOVES program. While the environmental impact of CMR activities tends to reduce the ROI, maintaining relatively smooth pavement throughout its service life is still estimated to create an approximate 48-to-1 ROI.
  Authors: Islam, Shahidul; Buttlar, William G.
  Authors: Islam, Shahidul; Buttlar, William G.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Environment; Pavements
  Session: 660
  Paper Number: 13-5084
• Consideration of Shale Gas Development Impacts in Long-Range Transportation Planning
  Abstract: Through the combination of two technologies—horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing- the U.S. natural gas industry has been able to access vast quantities of gas in tight shale formations. Shale gas development has had and will continue to have impacts on the performance of the transportation system—directly through increased heavy truck traffic and freight rail movement to supply equipment, water and chemicals, and indirectly through increased employment, that in turn generates additional travel demand. The purpose of this study was to review the state of the practice for considering shale gas impacts in long-range transportation planning. Recent statewide, metropolitan and rural transportation plans in areas already undergoing shale gas development in Texas, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio were reviewed. The review showed that qualitative acknowledgement of shale gas impacts on transportation is being included in some recently updated long-range plans, but the level of coverage of this issue varies substantially in different locations. Most long-range plans are not yet addressing shale gas impacts on safety, congestion or transportation-related air pollutant emissions. Potential approaches to improving the consideration of shale gas impacts in transportation planning include build-out analyses to generate potential well pad locations and enable prediction of impacts on specific roadways and system-wide indicators such as vehicle miles traveled. Further research and guidance is needed to provide a workable framework for transportation planning organizations to meaningfully address shale gas development in the long-range planning process.
  Authors: Tidd, Leo
  Authors: Tidd, Leo
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Data and Information Technology; Energy; Pavements
  Session: 534
  Paper Number: 13-5115
• Field and Laboratory Evaluation of Environmental Effects on Chip Seal Performance: Freeze-Thaw and Asphalt Aging
  Abstract: Chip seals generally deteriorate as a result of asphalt oxidation, wear and polishing of aggregate, bleeding, and raveling (loss of aggregates). In this study, two major environmental effects on chip seal performance, freeze-thaw and asphalt aging were investigated based on laboratory tests and field distress survey. For freeze-thaw evaluation, laboratory chip seal samples were prepared for 18 combinations (6 aggregates X 3 asphaltic materials). A simple freeze-thaw protocol was developed. It was observed that freeze-thaw loss is much higher than post freeze-thaw sweep test and control (dry) sweep test. Evaluation of freeze-thaw effect on aggregate types reveals that both the precoated and uncoated expanded shale lightweight performs comparatively very well against freeze-thaw plus sweep test. Evaluation of freeze-thaw effect on asphaltic materials types reveals that CRS-2P performs better than PAC-15 and AC20-5TR. For aging evaluation, asphaltic materials were extracted from 15 (5 aggregates X 3 asphaltic materials) field test sections and increase in stiffness due to aging were determined using a dynamic shear rheometer. For each of the five aggregates, CRS-2P shows the lowest G*/sinä indicating minimum field aging susceptibility among the three asphaltic materials. For each of the aggregates, AC20-5TR shows slightly higher G*/sinä than PAC-15 indicating maximum field aging susceptibility among the three asphaltic materials used in this study. It is evident from this study that precoating of aggregates increased the aging indices. For the field evaluation, fifteen chip seal test sections were prepared with three asphaltic materials and five aggregates in a 9-acre parking lot. Overall field distress ratings of the CRS-2P sections are better than those of PAC-15 sections and overall distress ratings of PAC-15 (sum of distress ratings of all the PAC-15 sections) sections are better than overall distress ratings of AC20-5TR sections which closely reflect the observations in freeze-thaw evaluation and asphalt aging evaluation.
  Authors: Wasiuddin, Nazimuddin Mohammad; Wilson, Kisler; Islam, Mohammad Readul; Parker, Phillip; Abadie, Christopher David; Mohammad, Louay N.
  Authors: Wasiuddin, Nazimuddin Mohammad; Wilson, Kisler; Islam, Mohammad Readul; Parker, Phillip; Abadie, Christopher David; Mohammad, Louay N.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-5094
• Comparative Analytical and Experimental Investigation of Pavement Hydroplaning-Predictive Methods
  Abstract: Hydroplaning risk reduction is one important consideration for safety in pavement network design and lane expansion, in particular. First, the authors performed an extensive study of all analytical methods that are available to predict water film thickness due to rain events and dynamic hydroplaning threshold speeds. Subsequently, field experiments were conducted in order to validate these existing methods of calculating such parameters. A rainfall simulator, which produces uniform, regulated rainfall, was used to quantify water buildup on an actual roadway segment. The results of the rain simulator experiment were consistent with models previously developed in the PAVDRN software, and by Gallaway and the New Zealand Roadway Laboratory. A locked wheel skid tester was used to detect the onset of dynamic hydroplaning by measuring friction loss under different speed and water film thickness scenarios. The results of the hydroplaning experiment were consistent with models previously developed in the PAVDRN software, and by the Texas Department of Transportation, and Ong and Fwa. These models give conservative estimates for hydroplaning-related parameters; therefore they are appropriate for use as highway design tools.
  Authors: Metz, John
  Authors: Metz, John
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 552
  Paper Number: 13-5216
• Development of Predictive Model for Skid Loss of Asphalt Pavements
  Abstract: Pavement friction is one of the primary factors that affect highway safety. Pavements with adequate surface friction reduce the number of wet skidding crashes. The objective of this study is to develop a predictive model for friction loss of pavement surface. The model incorporates parameters that describe aggregate shape characteristics, aggregate resistance to abrasion and polishing, aggregate gradation, and polishing cycles. This model was developed based on the results of a comprehensive experimental program. Square-shape slabs of different asphalt mixtures were prepared in the laboratory using a linear kneading compactor and polished using a wheel-polishing device. The frictional characteristics of the surface of the test slabs were measured after different intervals of polishing and statistical analysis was performed to relate friction to mixture characteristics.
  Authors: Kassem, Emad; Awed, Ahmed; Masad, Eyad A.; Little, Dallas N.
  Authors: Kassem, Emad; Awed, Ahmed; Masad, Eyad A.; Little, Dallas N.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Materials; Pavements
  Session: 517
  Paper Number: 13-5229
• Shifting Sands: Emerging Transportation Impacts of Frac Sand Mining and Shale Gas Drilling
  Abstract: Damage to roads is an impact of the emerging industry of shale gas drilling and frac sand mining. County governments have used a number of mechanisms to recover the costs of road damage. Chippewa County, Wisconsin serves as a model of how local governments are using road use agreements to recover road damages, fund maintenance, and expedite grade crossing improvements. This paper examines Chippewa County’s road use agreements and discusses the implications for neighboring counties, state-level policy and the need for a regional approach to assigning impacts.
  Authors: Hart, Maria; Adams, Teresa M.; Schwartz, Andrew
  Authors: Hart, Maria; Adams, Teresa M.; Schwartz, Andrew
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Data and Information Technology; Energy; Pavements
  Session: 534
  Paper Number: 13-5245
• Comparing MEPDG Distress Predictions with Automated and Manual Interpretations
  Abstract: The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) software was designed on a nationally calibrated basis, thus calibrating the existing parameters to suit local conditions is necessary for accurate distress predictions. The process of calibration involves iterating distress model coefficients until the predicted results match a desired outcome. This desired outcome is typically associated with monitored pavement distress results, documented through manual methods and stored in pavement management systems. However, the calibration process can be very time consuming, thus sufficient automated methods of data collection are desirable. The cracking protocol used by MEPDG is consistent with the cracking definitions provided by the Long Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) program. Due to the difficulties involved with the development of cracking recognition algorithms for automated distress survey software, many have made attempts to promote alternative cracking protocols that are more suitable for automated technologies. Significant efforts for the enhancement of the MEPDG software have also been taking place, thus recent research has been pulled in two directions. This paper portrays the implementation of a post-processing tool used to modify the cracking interpretations of an existing surveying software called the Automated Distress Analyzer (ADA). This tool incorporates wheelpath boundaries in order to establish a means of defining cracks in regards to LTPP. The results indicated that the automated post-processing tool has the ability to replicate nationally-calibrated MEPDG distress predictions better than a surveying method involving human intervention as well as ADA by itself.
  Authors: Byram, Daniel; Xiao, Danny X.; Wang, Kelvin C. P.; Hall, Kevin D.; Li, Qiang
  Authors: Byram, Daniel; Xiao, Danny X.; Wang, Kelvin C. P.; Hall, Kevin D.; Li, Qiang
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 242
  Paper Number: 13-5260
• Methodology for Evaluating Life-Cycle Cost and Acoustic Performance of Barriers and Pavement for Highway Noise Reduction
  Abstract: In the recently completed NCHRP 10-76 Project, methodologies were developed and demonstrated for evaluating feasibility, reasonableness, effectiveness, acoustic longevity, and economic features of pavement strategies and barriers proposed for highway noise abatement. The essential elements of the methodologies are the use of an expanded pavement Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) to examine economic features, a modified version of the Federal Highway Administration Traffic Noise Model (TNM) to integrate the noise reducing performance of pavements and barriers, and use of on-board sound intensity data as an input to the prediction model. In this paper, the modifications to LCCA are presented to account for the initial and life cycle costs of both barriers and quieter pavement in the context of a complete highway project. These are then applied to a generic six-lane highway new construction project on a per mile basis. The results of this analysis are then applied to a hypothetical, but plausible project of new construction set along a portion of I-93 in Massachusetts. Barriers, quieter pavement, and combinations of both are then evaluated for feasibility and reasonableness using the policies of three state highway agencies. The new parameter of effectiveness is also advanced and acoustic longevity is considered based on California and Arizona Quieter Pavement Research findings.
  Authors: Donavan, Paul
  Authors: Donavan, Paul
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 814
  Paper Number: 13-4670
• Rutting Evaluation of Soft Subgrade Layer with Different Stabilization Measures
  Abstract: Eighteen large-scale test sections were constructed with different stabilization layers including granular material (aggregate base course and select fill), granular material with geosynthetic reinforcement, and lime stabilization of the upper portion of the soft subgrade soil to evaluate the soft subgrade response under repetitive loading. This paper assess the rutting potential of soft subgrade soils under repeated loading and the applicability of two existing subgrade rutting models using different subgrade stress state estimation approaches. Repeated load triaxial tests are performed to evaluate the accumulated strain of the soft subgrade soil and to determine subgrade rutting model parameters. The stress state required for the rutting prediction are determined using three different approaches: (1) two-layered isotropic elastic method; (2) classical Boussinesq solution; and (3) parameters from measured peak stresses. For granular stabilization test sections, subgrade rutting models using the stress state obtained from the two-layered isotropic elastic model and Boussinesq solution significantly underestimate the magnitude of rutting. For the lime stabilized subgrade test sections, rutting is reasonably predicted using the stress state obtained from the two-layered isotropic elastic approach with relatively low stiffness ratios of LSS and subgrade layers. Recent studies indicate the importance of nonlinear anisotropic modeling of aggregate base course (ABC) to better predict pavement response. Therefore, for this study, the subgrade rutting of four ABC test sections is additionally analyzed using subgrade stress states determined from nonlinear anisotropic aggregate base modeling. Results suggest that this approach provides better subgrade rutting estimation than that using stress states determined from the linear isotropic model and the Boussinesq solution.
  Authors: Pyo, Sangchul; Gabr, Mohammed A.; Borden, Roy H.
  Authors: Pyo, Sangchul; Gabr, Mohammed A.; Borden, Roy H.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 367
  Paper Number: 13-4833
• Comparative Evaluation of Locked-Wheel and Fixed-Slip Skid Systems
  Abstract: Most states are using locked-wheel skid trailers to maintain an inventory of skid numbers over their highway networks. This friction tester was developed in the 1960s and does not simulate present-day anti-lock braking systems unlike the relatively recent variable-slip and fixed-slip devices that are used in other countries. The two systems do not produce the same skid number values. Thus, there is a need to conduct side-by-side tests to compare the measurements from fixed-slip and locked-wheel skid systems. This paper presents results from tests conducted with fixed-slip and locked wheel friction measurement systems to investigate relationships between the friction numbers obtained from both systems.
  Authors: Fernando, Emmanuel G.; Zimmer, Richard; Mikhail, Magdy
  Authors: Fernando, Emmanuel G.; Zimmer, Richard; Mikhail, Magdy
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 384
  Paper Number: 13-4852
• AN ANNULAR CYLINDER SOURCE MODEL FOR HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH ENERGY PILES
  Abstract: A pile-anchored heat pump system can potentially be used as an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional solutions for bridge deck deicing. Such a system can also be useful during summer to reduce thermal distress of concrete bridge decks. Quantification of ground temperature variation due to heat transfer through energy piles is important for efficient design of these piles. Available idealized heat source models, which assume constant heat flux along the length of a heat exchanger element, cannot be used to evaluate ground temperature response during the operation of an energy pile. An annular cylinder heat source model that can realistically simulate heat transfer through an energy pile is proposed in this paper. The proposed model can capture the effects of fluid circulation rate and variable heat flux on temperature variation in soil surrounding an energy pile. A finite difference code is developed for simultaneous solution of partial differential equations describing heat transport in pile and soil. Results show that both the temperature of heat carrier fluid and the heat flux decrease along the length of an energy pile. Comparison of results from the proposed model with those obtained using previously available heat source models shows that the use of a constant heat flux along the entire length of an energy pile would significantly overestimate the change in ground temperature. The temperature difference between the two ends of a circulation tube increases as the fluid circulation rate decreases.
  Authors: Ghasemi Fare, Omid; Basu, Prasenjit
  Authors: Ghasemi Fare, Omid; Basu, Prasenjit
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Bridges and Other Structures; Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 465
  Paper Number: 13-4949
• Optimization and Prioritization Methods for Pavement Network Management
  Abstract: Given the limitations in pavement agencies’ annual budgets, one of the principal modules of a network level Pavement Management System is the economic module, whose goal is to define a network maintenance program that ensures an optimal allocation of resources. Different approaches and methods are found in literature for the resolution of the maintenance program problem, varying in the input needed information, the considered time frame and the process used to select sections, treatments and timings. This paper seeks to assess the existing methods used for the economic evaluation, prioritization and optimization applied to pavement network management and recommend the most suitable methods for different scenarios. Two main approaches (sequential and holistic) and three classes of methods (priority based on ranking and multicriteria analysis, optimization, and near-optimization methods) have been applied for solving the maintenance program problem. Holistic approach, normally solved using optimization or near-optimization methods, tackles the problem considering the overall network condition. Sequential approach is easier to implement and understand, but it may deal to solutions far from optimal because it does not consider the problem as a whole. Scenarios defining the suitability of these approaches are defined. Finally, a hydrid approach based on iterations is purposed. Iterative approach considers the overall condition of the network and is supposed to deal to better solutions than sequential approach being easier to implement and understand than the holistic approach.
  Authors: Torres-Machí, Cristina; Chamorro, Alondra; Videla, Carlos; Pellicer, Eugenio; Yepes, Víctor
  Authors: Torres-Machí, Cristina; Chamorro, Alondra; Videla, Carlos; Pellicer, Eugenio; Yepes, Víctor
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 662
  Paper Number: 13-5057
• Evaluation of Long-Lasting Perpetual Asphalt Pavement Using Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
  Abstract: In 2006, the Oklahoma Department of Transportation (OKDOT) sponsored work at the National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) Pavement Test Track to compare the performance of two sections that were designed to determine the thickness required to obtain a perpetual pavement. One section (Section N9) was designed to be a perpetual pavement (14 inches thick) and the thickness of the other section was reduced to 10 inches (based on AASHTO 1993 design guide) to see how well it performed and to help identify the thickness needed for a perpetual pavement. This paper presents a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) to quantify the benefits of building the perpetual pavement section compared to the long term cost of the thinner section. LCCA was conducted using RealCost 2.5, which is available through FHWA, to determine quantitative estimates of construction schedule, work zone user costs, and agency costs for initial construction and rehabilitation activities. The perpetual pavement section was found to have a lower life-cycle cost than the conventional pavement section and provide better service to highway users. Furthermore, to help better planning for future preservation study the estimated present serviceability rating (PSR) as a function of international roughness index (IRI) for two different designs (perpetual and non-perpetual) was carefully evaluated. The findings of surface measurements for both sections clearly demonstrate a difference between perpetual and conventional pavement serviceability for a given level of roughness and accumulated traffic. These results are also helpful to assess the improvement of conventional pavement after each rehabilitation treatments.
  Authors: Sakhaeifar, Maryam; Brown, E. Ray; Tran, Nam; Dean, Jeff
  Authors: Sakhaeifar, Maryam; Brown, E. Ray; Tran, Nam; Dean, Jeff
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 239
  Paper Number: 13-0330
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Relationship Between Tire-Pavement Interaction Noise and Surface Characteristics in 2009 Pavement Test Track Cycle
  Abstract: The interest in quieter pavements has been driven largely by public awareness that altering the surface can affect traffic noise levels. The objective of this research was to utilize two methods for measuring tire-pavement noise to assess which pavement surface characteristics have the greatest influence on noise generation. The National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) test road, with four different pavement surface family groups, was used to test and analyze noise from tire-pavement interaction. The tire-pavement noise was measured in a novel test approach using a surface microphone from different types of sections in the Test Track. Testing was conducted on four major family groups of superpave fine and coarse graded, open-graded friction course (OGFC) and stone matrix asphalt (SMA) mixes from 2009 NCAT Test Track research cycle to evaluate changes over time. The results show that the noise levels vary widely according to pavement surface type. The effects of pavement properties including the air void content, gradation properties, roughness, texture, pavement stiffness and age have been evaluated on one-third octave band noise levels. The evaluation confirmed that macrotexture increases the low frequency noise and higher air void content reduce the high frequency noise level, while other surface characteristics found to have less influence on noise levels. The content of this study should be of immediate interest to pavement engineers and others concerned with pavement design and construction to determine appropriate quieter pavement surface.
  Authors: Sakhaeifar, Maryam; Liao, Gong-yun; Waller, Brian
  Authors: Sakhaeifar, Maryam; Liao, Gong-yun; Waller, Brian
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 814
  Paper Number: 13-0328
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Long-Term Investigation into the use of New Rapid Hardening Cement for Controlled Low-Strength Materials to be Employed in Pavement Applications
  Abstract: Controlled low strength materials (CLSMs) are engineered, cement based materials of growing interest in all trench backfilling and bedding applications where low stiffness, strength and density are required. Although 50 years have passed since its first application, the technology has been the source of continuous innovation. The challenge today concerns the excessive and undesirable long-term gain in strength of current CLSMs available on the market which leads to difficulties in the event of future removal and to unbalanced stress strain behavior with surrounding soils.In this investigation, the authors present a long-term laboratory study aimed at the creation of new formulations for pavement applications with the objective of avoiding or limiting any gain in stiffness and resistance over time. For this purpose, a rapid hardening cement has been used as a substitute for Portland cement. The particular formulation of cement adopted presents many advantages in terms of rapid set, high early strength development and insignificant gain in strength over long periods. All the mixtures studied were subjected to static and dynamic triaxial tests taking the mechanical characteristics of a reference granular soil as the mix design target for new CLSM formulations. The results deriving from the use of different admixtures and mixing procedures in terms of mixing time, batching sequence and type of mixer were also investigated.
  Authors: Bertola, Federica; Bassani, Marco; Canonico, Fulvio; Bianchi, Manuela
  Authors: Bertola, Federica; Bassani, Marco; Canonico, Fulvio; Bianchi, Manuela
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 664
  Paper Number: 13-0509
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Tennessee Stabilized Base Using Substandard Fly Ash and Byproduct Limestone Screenings
  Abstract: Substandard fly ash (high carbon/loss-on-ignition (LOI)) and byproduct limestone screenings are plentiful materials in Tennessee. Utilization of these materials could result in both economic and environmental benefits. The Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) Specification 312 for an Aggregate-Lime-Fly Ash Stabilized Base Course includes hydrated lime, fly ash, and TDOT Grading C limestone. The specification requires an average compressive strength of 950-psi (6.5-MPa) for three specimens, with no individual compressive strength less than 800-psi (5.5-MPa), after 28-days of curing at 100 °F (37.8 °C).The use of substandard fly ash and limestone screenings was compared to the use of standard materials. The control set consisted of the control fly ash with an aggregate blend, while the variable sets consisted of the control and variable fly ashes, respectively, with limestone screenings. The average compressive strength and coefficient of variation were 1,263-psi (8.71-MPa) and 5.8% for the control set, 1,416-psi (9.76-MPa) and 4.9% for the first variable set, and 966-psi (6.65-MPa) and 3.2% for the second variable set, respectively. The average static modulus of elasticity and coefficient of variation were 3,000-ksi (20.68-GPa) and 7.8% for the control set, 2,650-ksi (18.27-GPa) and 5.2% for the first variable set, and 1,400-ksi (9.65-GPa) and 8.7% for the second variable set, respectively.Analysis of these results indicates that a high LOI fly ash can be useful as a stabilizing agent when used in combination with hydrated lime. These results also suggest that byproduct limestone screenings can be used effectively as a significant part of the aggregate.
  Authors: Dillon, Sarah; Crouch, Lewis Keith; Knight, Marcus L.
  Authors: Dillon, Sarah; Crouch, Lewis Keith; Knight, Marcus L.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 694
  Paper Number: 13-0776
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Otta Seals: Surfacing Solution in Developing Regions
  Abstract: The provision and sustainability of infrastructure in the developing world remains a huge challenge for road authorities, and funding and donor agencies. Gravel roads provide early life service, but later fail in their function because of inadequate maintenance. Traditional surfacings such as chip seals or asphalt require high quality materials and specialist expertise, which may not always be available in outlying areas. A cost effective solution to providing durable surfacings is the Otta seal. It consists of a soft binder and a graded aggregate, and can be constructed labour intensively with minimal equipment. The objective of the paper is to present a case for wider use of Otta seals in countries in transition to ensure a long-lasting transport legacy. Brief detail is provided on the design and construction of the Otta seal, and the extent of international use and performance. Confirmation of the technical capabilities leads to the evaluation of the socio-economic and institutional sustainability, which are critical issues in the implementation. On the basis of the review presented, it is concluded that the Otta seal is technically feasible and economically sustainable, and thus a suitable option for surfacing that needs to be seriously considered by road authorities and donor agencies.
  Authors: Visser, Alex T.
  Authors: Visser, Alex T.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Design; Pavements
  Session: 245
  Paper Number: 13-0809
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Modeling the In Situ Performance of Cement Stabilized Granular Base Layers of Urban Roads
  Abstract: This study used a three dimensional non-linear orthotropic computational road model to measure the performance of reclaimed and recycled Portland cement concrete (PCC) aggregates and reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregates stabilized with cement, as a base layer in a City of Saskatoon local road structure. The pavement structure used in this study was a typical City of Saskatoon local road structure, composed of 45 mm hot mix asphalt concrete (HMAC) on 225 mm granular base, built directly on top of in situ subgrade. The cross section was analysed with a conventional granular base layer as a baseline, and PCC and RAP base layers with two percent cement stabilization. The cement stabilized PCC and RAP base layers showed improved shear strain and horizontal strain behaviour when compared to the conventional granular base layer (which was not cement stabilized). This improvement confirms that cement stabilization of reclaimed PCC and RAP materials provides an enhanced primary response. This study demonstrated that typical thin COS pavement structures are highly dependent on base layer material constitutive properties. Stabilizing the PCC and RAP base layers with 2% cement reduced the maximum shear strains at the edge of the pavement structure by 12% and 25%, respectively, compared to the unstabilized conventional granular base layer. It is believed the increased fracture and cohesion of the residual cementitious materials inherent to recycled granular base, as well as cementitious binder added, improved the structural performance.
  Authors: Soares, Roberto; Haichert, Rielle; Podborochynski, Diana; Berthelot, Curtis F.
  Authors: Soares, Roberto; Haichert, Rielle; Podborochynski, Diana; Berthelot, Curtis F.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 664
  Paper Number: 13-0879
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Simplified Analytical Approach to Predict Temperature Profile Within Portland Cement Concrete Slab During FWD Testing
  Abstract: Temperature profile in the Portland cement concrete slab of a rigid pavement plays an important role in analyzing and interpreting Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) testing data. This paper presents a simple analytical method to rapidly predicting time-dependent temperature profile in the concrete slab based on measured rigid pavement surface temperature data during FWD testing. In this paper, the classical solution of one-dimensional heat equation for a homogeneous half-space subjected to specified surface temperature data is employed; and an efficient Gaussian-quadrature numerical scheme to approximating the improper integrals in the classical solution is identified. The cubic spline interpolation technique is used to generate surface temperature history based on measured surface temperature data at different times during FWD testing.Based on the FWD temperature data collected in the well-known Long-Term Pavement Performance Program, total 2,215 subsurface temperatures within concrete slabs were predicted for different climatic regions. Comparisons between predicted and measured subsurface temperatures suggested that the proposed simple analytical method yielded reasonable temperature profile within concrete slabs in rigid pavements.
  Authors: Wang, Dong
  Authors: Wang, Dong
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 554
  Paper Number: 13-0933
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Guidelines for Selection and Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Structural Concrete
  Abstract: This paper presents guidelines for using RCA as a full or partial replacement for natural coarse aggregate in new concrete (RCA concrete). Several international standards and guidelines for the use of RCA in concrete are reviewed and contrasted to identify areas where further development is required. The main results of an extensive experimental research program by the Authors are summarized herein to provide the basis for the development of a framework for using RCA in structural concrete. Several RCA performance classes are proposed each with a specific set of requirements and suitable applications. The proposed performance classes define further requirements and guidance for the use of RCA beyond the requirements of CSA A23.1 and ASTM C33. A detailed decision tree is proposed that allows engineers, concrete producers, aggregate suppliers and contractors to assess whether a particular RCA source is suitable for use in reinforced concrete, plain concrete or as a fill material.
  Authors: Butler, Liam J; Tighe, Susan Louise; West, Jeffrey S
  Authors: Butler, Liam J; Tighe, Susan Louise; West, Jeffrey S
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 284
  Paper Number: 13-1173
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Evaluating Laboratory Compaction Techniques of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
  Abstract: Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) is a byproduct of roadway resurfacing. A limited amount can be recycled into new hot mix asphalt; the rest is stockpiled. Some states allow the use of RAP/aggregate blends as base course material. Due to its low strength and susceptibility to creep deformation the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) excludes RAP as pavement base course for high traffic areas. The research objective was to determine whether the strength characteristics of RAP could be improved through compaction to make it base suitable in high traffic areas. Modified Proctor, vibratory, and gyratory compaction data was compared. Four RAP sources were used. Specimens compacted by the three methods were tested using Limerock Bearing Ratio (LBR), Unconfined Compressive, and Indirect Split Tensile strength. LBR is Florida’s variation of the California Bearing Ratio. Specimens were compacted to either a density or to a compaction energy level. Vibratory compaction produced the lowest densities and strengths. Modified Proctor produced higher densities and strengths than vibratory but the LBR strengths for all RAP types were consistently below FDOT standards. Gyratory compaction produced the highest densities and strengths. Gyratory specimens of RAP were two to four times stronger than modified Proctor specimens at the same density. Compaction method did not have as significant an effect on creep, although gyratory compacted samples did produce less creep than modified Proctor compacted samples.
  Authors: Cosentino, Paul J.; Bleakley, Albert M.; Perersen, Andrew James; Sajjadi, Amir Mohammad
  Authors: Cosentino, Paul J.; Bleakley, Albert M.; Perersen, Andrew James; Sajjadi, Amir Mohammad
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 564
  Paper Number: 13-1220
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Proposed New Performance Indicator: Vehicle Operating Cost Index due to Road Roughness
  Abstract: The New Zealand Ministry of Transport has stated that reducing transportation costs should be a key outcome of the use of the National Land Transport Fund. Road roughness contributes to the cost of transportation through factors such as fuel consumption, repairs and maintenance, and tyre wear. The cost due to roughness may be only a few cents per vehicle kilometre travelled (VKT), but with circa 20 billion VKT on the State Highway network each year the total cost can be significant. Currently the performance of the State Highway network is measured using the International Roughness Index (IRI) and Smooth Travel Exposure (STE); however, neither quantifies the cost due to roughness and neither are suitable surrogates. This paper presents a proposed new performance indicator, the Vehicle Operating Cost Index (VOCi) which returns the average vehicle operating cost due to road roughness per VKT. The VOCi has been applied to the entire New Zealand State Highway network, with results presented for each State Highway functional classification, at both the national and regional levels. Although nationally the magnitude and variability of VOCi reduces with increasing functional classification, as is consistent with appropriate stewardship of the asset taking account of the relative functional importance of the route, the same relationship does not always exist at the regional level. It should be noted, however, that the VOCi, like any other indicator of its kind, is only part of the information available to decision makers and will not negate the need to ‘drill-down’ to determine if there are any underlying reasons behind uncharacteristic values.
  Authors: Costello, Seosamh B.; Bargh, Louis S.; Henning, Theuns F. P.; Hendry, Matt
  Authors: Costello, Seosamh B.; Bargh, Louis S.; Henning, Theuns F. P.; Hendry, Matt
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 662
  Paper Number: 13-1265
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Characterization of Cracking Behavior of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements Under Current Design Concept in Belgium
  Abstract: In Belgium, Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP) are being used on large scale for more than forty years. Under the initial standard design concept an apparently very unfavourable cracking pattern develops with a high probability of clusters of closely spaced cracks. The standard design underwent several main changes over time with regard to longitudinal reinforcement rate, depth of the reinforcement layer, presence of an asphalt interlayer, pavement thickness, concrete mix, surface finishing and lane width. The current concept that has been used since 1995 is quite satisfactory since no major distresses have occurred since then. The primary objective of this paper is to investigate the crack spacing and crack width characteristics of the CRCPs under the current design concept. More specifically the focus is on the influence of the different reinforcement percentages on the early age cracking behaviour of CRCP. Several different approaches were used to analyse the crack spacing, especially, the probability of clusters of closely spaced cracks. Crack width data including the movement of the slab were also obtained by linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) measurements.
  Authors: Ren, Dongya; Houben, Lambert; Rens, Luc
  Authors: Ren, Dongya; Houben, Lambert; Rens, Luc
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 474
  Paper Number: 13-1302
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Findings from International Scan on Managing Pavements and Monitoring Performance
  Abstract: Nine pavement and asset managers from the United States (U.S.) participated in an International Scan on Managing Pavements and Monitoring Performance. Four members were from state agencies, 3 from the Federal Highway Administration, 1 from a university technology transfer program and 1 consultant served as report facilitator. The scan team sought input on processes for implementing sustainable performance-based programs, effective communication methods for upper management and legislative support, agency cultures that support performance based programs, and techniques, tools, analyses and reporting that supports performance based management. Agencies selected for the visits had experience with managing their pavement networks under constrained budgets. The team traveled to New Zealand, Australia, Sweden, Netherlands and England and gathered information from 15 agencies.While the initial focus of the scan was on pavement management, the team found that some of the agencies conduct pavement management within an asset management framework. The findings are thus equally applicable to assets other than pavements. The key findings include the following: agency culture supports a long-term view towards managing pavements, elected officials understand their responsibilities as stewards of public funds, the road network is managed as a service provided to the traveling public, agency priorities are known and agency personnel are held accountable for their actions, agencies recognize the importance of building internal capacity and capabilities, and efficiency and value drive program delivery approaches.The scan team selected four focus areas that it believes have value in the U.S. In developing the long term view of managing assets, the visited agencies used long term financial plans and asset management plans. The scan team highly recommends that these plans be integrated into day-to-day practice in state and local highway agencies. A goal in the area of accountability is to foster the use of asset management plans and long term financial plans to optimize short-term investments to improve asset performance, but also report the unfunded long-term liabilities so elected and appointed officials understand the degree to which the transportation system is sustainable. Understanding unfunded liability will help elected and appointed officials, agency personnel at all levels, the public and the media realize the importance of sustainable asset management programs. Visited agencies discussed recurring independent assessments of the asset management plan and the long term financial plan to improve accountability, credibility and transparency with elected and appointed officials. Finally, the scan team saw the importance of people, processes and data within transportation agencies to develop and use the asset management and long term financial plans. Broad skills in the areas of engineering, contract administration, economics and accounting are needed.
  Authors: Zimmerman, Kathryn A.; Corley-Lay, Judith B.; Wlaschin, Butch; Tetreault, Richard M.
  Authors: Zimmerman, Kathryn A.; Corley-Lay, Judith B.; Wlaschin, Butch; Tetreault, Richard M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 479
  Paper Number: 13-1312
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Cementitiously Stabilized Materials Using Ultrasonic Testing
  Abstract: The effect of curing time, and compaction cementitiously stabilized materials (CSM) was studied using ultrasonic P-wave propagation. In general, the P-wave velocity measurements the mixtures increased with curing time. The trend between unconfined compression strength (UCS) with dry density or compaction water content was the same as the trend with P-wave velocity measurements. For stabilized fine-grained soils, there was a peak in P-wave velocity coinciding with the maximum dry density. The P-wave velocity and constrained modulus were strongly correlated to the UCS for CSMs. A model for prediction of UCS was proposed and verified. These test results provides insights for use of ultrasonic pulse velocity testing method for the determination of mechanical properties of CSM.
  Authors: Su, Zhipeng
  Authors: Su, Zhipeng
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 564
  Paper Number: 13-1435
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Evaluation of the Benefits of Diamond Grinding of CRCP in Texas
  Abstract: The paper discusses a study to evaluate the benefits of diamond grinding on a CRCP, used specifically for improving functionality in terms of surface macrotexture, skid resistance, roughness, and pavement noise. The effectiveness of diamond grinding in improving the above properties is calculated based on in-field observations. The effect of three different pre-existing conditions (carpet drag, burlap drag and transverse tining) on the effectiveness of the diamond grinding is also evaluated. The results of the analysis indicate that diamond grinding improved the surface macrotexture by 0.6 mm and skid resistance by about 60 %. The surface roughness of the diamond ground sections were on average appreciably reduced from 124 inch/mile to 80 inch/mile. An average overall reduction in noise level of 3.2 dBA was evident. A maximum reduction in the region of the noise frequencies (1,000 Hz to 2,500 Hz) was observed with a maximum noise reduction of 5.6 dBA at 1,600 Hz. The grinding operation produced a relatively uniform surface in terms of these properties despite the varying pre-existing conditions across the CRCP.
  Authors: Buddhavarapu, Prasad N. V. S. R.; Smit, Andre de Fortier; Trevino, Manuel; Banerjee, Ambarish; Prozzi, Jorge A.
  Authors: Buddhavarapu, Prasad N. V. S. R.; Smit, Andre de Fortier; Trevino, Manuel; Banerjee, Ambarish; Prozzi, Jorge A.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 711
  Paper Number: 13-1515
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Kay County Shale Subgrade Stabilization Revisited
  Abstract: This paper presents a re-examination of a research project on US-77 in Kay County, Oklahoma concerning chemical stabilization of an 8-inch compacted shale subbase layer completed in 1983. The primary focus of this paper was to examine the changes in the pavement surface deflection and backcalculated modulus of the stabilized subbase layer within the project test sections over time.The original research project test sections were identified and tested with a trailer mounted Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) unit in August 2010. The FWD deflection survey performed in July 2000 and the original Benkelman beam deflection survey performed in June 1985 following the original pavement construction were used in this pavement analysis.The pavement had been overlain with two thin asphalt overlays. The FWD deflection data was normalized by ratio of the new thickness to the original pavement thickness so that the original Benkelman beam deflection data could be used. The pavement analysis uses the two-layer Hogg model and three-layer model in the Modulus 6.0 software to estimate the subgrade modulus and 8-inch stabilized subbase layer subgrade modulus respectively. The conclusions are the following: a) the pavement surface deflections indicate that the stabilized subbase layer sections have relatively stiff subgrade support, b) the three-layer model predicts a higher subbase layer modulus, and c) chemically stabilized subbase layers do not significantly lose strength or degrade with time and can be depended on as part of the structural section.
  Authors: Clarke, Christopher R.
  Authors: Clarke, Christopher R.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 694
  Paper Number: 13-1530
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Maintenance Cost Justification for Chloride Treatment and Aggregate on Unsealed Roads
  Abstract: Treating aggregate surfaced roads with chloride dust suppressants or building them up by adding good quality surfacing aggregate is generally believed to reduce surface maintenance costs by creating a more durable surface. This paper quantifies reductions in routine blade maintenance costs by analyzing nearly seven years of cost data from the Johnson County (Wyoming) Road and Bridge Department.Over the past decade, Johnson County has experienced considerable oil and gas drilling, substantially impacting the county’s aggregate surfaced roads. Initial analyses assess the expenditures on the county’s unsealed road network’s highest volume roads, with an average of around 350 vehicles per day and a very high proportion of heavy trucks. The average annual cost of $9,167 per mile per year [$5,696/km-yr] to maintain these roads is high for an unsealed road, but the traffic volume is also high. The county’s maintenance cost data was used to perform a regression analysis with the time since aggregate addition and the time since calcium chloride treatment along with traffic and precipitation as independent variables to generate a model that predicts routine blade maintenance costs. This model predicts cost savings as a percent of the initial chloride treatment cost. Savings range from 24% at 200 vehicles per day to 79% at 650 vehicles per day. This represents only part of the benefits from these treatments, since lower user costs, safer roads, environmental benefits, and lowered aggregate replacement frequency are additional but currently unquantified benefits from good quality aggregate and dust suppression.
  Authors: Huntington, George; Ksaibati, Khaled
  Authors: Huntington, George; Ksaibati, Khaled
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 740
  Paper Number: 13-1543
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Internal Curing of Concrete Bridge Decks in Utah: Preliminary Evaluation
  Abstract: The objectives of this research were to 1) monitor in-situ bridge deck properties such as moisture and diffusivity for both conventional concrete and concrete containing pre-wetted lightweight fine aggregate (LWFA), which is intended to provide internal curing, 2) compare deck performance in terms of early-age cracking, and 3) evaluate the concrete mixtures in the laboratory in terms of compressive strength and chloride permeability using cylinders cast in the field at the time of deck construction. The research scope included four bridges, two constructed using conventional concrete and two containing pre-wetted LWFA, in northern Utah. Data from sensors embedded in the concrete decks indicate that the moisture content of the internally cured concrete was 2 to 3 percent higher at 28 days than the moisture content of the conventional concrete. Although the internally cured concrete had a higher moisture content, the electrical conductivity values were approximately the same for all the decks after a couple of months, suggesting that the two types of concrete have similar diffusivity. At 28 days, the average strength of the internally cured concrete was 1 percent higher than that of the conventional concrete, and the internally cured concrete passed between 2 and 30 percent less current during the rapid chloride permeability test than the conventional concrete. After 2 months, three to five cracks about 0.2 to 0.3 mm in width were found on each of the conventional concrete bridge decks, while no visible signs of cracking were found in the bridge decks with internal curing.
  Authors: Guthrie, W. Spencer; Yaede, Joseph M.
  Authors: Guthrie, W. Spencer; Yaede, Joseph M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 799
  Paper Number: 13-5374
• Otta Seal Experience in Nepal
  Abstract: Otta Seals have been adopted in many countries as a low-cost pavement sealing alternative for durable and smooth roads. However, this pavement surfacing option for low volume roads is not yet universally accepted, and its effectiveness is disputed, because of its varied performance. This paper assesses the Otta Seal experience in Nepal for the last ten years, for both local and strategic roads in different geographic terrains – covering the hills and plains of Nepal. It addresses aspects of Otta Seal technology in relation to design, construction, cost and in-service performance, as well as its acceptance by the stakeholders, including the beneficiaries. The stakeholder acceptance has been affected by the early deterioration of the road surface in some instances, mainly attributable to inadequate design, poor quality of construction and inexperience with a new road technology. Road geometry, vehicle speed, and axle loads are other factors which have seriously affected durability. However, overall the performance of the pavements has been considered to be acceptable. The factors contributing to early failures require further discussion and research to help build ownership of this low-cost paving technology among road agencies.
  Authors: Joshi, Surendra Govinda
  Authors: Joshi, Surendra Govinda
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Design; Pavements
  Session: 245
  Paper Number: 13-1627
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Twenty-Five Years of Performance: Validation of Illinois Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design on US-20 and US-50
  Abstract: In the summer of 1986 the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) built four demonstration sections to validate the proposed mechanistically-based pavement design procedures. Multiple variables were taken into consideration in order to determine a valid correlation between pavement design inputs and pavement performance. After 25 years of service, these sections have provided great value to IDOT in the development of the pavement design procedures, policies and standards, and in general a better understanding of the mechanics of pavement performance. The knowledge acquired from the four sections supports IDOT’s practice in the use of performance graded binders, joint spacing in jointed concrete pavements, jointed concrete and full-depth hot-mix asphalt pavement thickness design, and subgrade selection. This study has validated IDOT’s mechanistic pavement design procedure, proving that the theory behind the 1986 design was correct. Since then, these sections and extensive laboratory testing and investigation have allowed IDOT to further refine the mechanistic pavement design procedure to include more accurate material properties. In addition to improving design procedure, having 25 years of data and observing the deterioration and rehabilitation of certain sections have allowed IDOT to fine tune the maintenance models to improve pavement type selection between flexible and rigid alternatives.
  Authors: Pava, Juan David
  Authors: Pava, Juan David
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 267
  Paper Number: 13-1036
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Investigation of Very Early Opening Strength Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Repair with the Application of Maturity Testing
  Abstract: The repair of concrete pavement due to utility cuts or deterioration on St. Louis County, Missouri right-of-way consisted of an evaluation of current materials, construction methods and specifications to deliver a durable concrete repair in four to six hours using a concrete maturity meter to determine opening strength. Literature research was performed to improve current four hour opening pavement repair specifications. Material suppliers, contractors and a utility company were consulted on their mixes used. The availability/cost of Type III cement and cold-weather placement was of major concern. The evaluation of contractor, state and county pavement repair mixes, using Type I/II and III cements were tested at the time of placement for concrete temperature, entrained air, and workability. Maturity curves for some common mix designs were constructed to determine the pavement repair’s compressive strength at time of opening. A table of opening compressive strengths based on pavement repair thickness and repair length were adopted. Research concluded that at the time of placement a minimum concrete temperature of 80 Fahrenheit (27 Celsius) is critical in strength gain. The use of non-chloride calcium nitrite-based accelerating and polycarboxylate-based high-range water reducing admixture types were determined and dosages were estimated using locally available aggregate. Specifications were developed to encourage material supplier development of economical ready-mix concrete with Type I/II Portland cement. A procedure was also developed to apply the maturity method to mix design performance and verify the pavement repair’s opening strength is met in four to six hours.
  Authors: Holesinger, Richard E.
  Authors: Holesinger, Richard E.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 237
  Paper Number: 13-0139
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Moisture-Sensitive and Stress-Dependent Behavior of Pavement Unbound Materials from In Situ Falling-Weight Deflectometer Tests
  Abstract: In an instrumented flexible pavement with subsurface drainage system, a field study was performed to investigate the influence of water on the response of the pavement structure. The drainage system of the structure was clogged during a three month period, allowing the water table to rise and the structure to undergo high moisture conditions. Thereafter the drainage was reopened allowing the structure to approach its previous hydrological equilibrium state. Along with subsurface groundwater level and moisture content monitoring, the structural response of the pavement was studied by conducting frequent Falling Weight Deflectometer measurements with multilevel loads. The stress sensitivity of the unbound layers and the influence of moisture on their stiffness were studied using the data with an effort to determine the unbound materials nonlinear parameters through a backcalculation algorithm. The study showed that the response of the pavement moisture content to changes in drainage system condition was very fast. The rise in the groundwater level significantly affected the overall stiffness of the pavement structure and the backcalculated stiffness of the unbound layers decreased as their moisture content increased. It was further observed that the unbound layers exhibited stress dependent behavior to multilevel loads. The granular layer showed stress hardening behavior but the subgrade showed stress softening response in unsaturated condition and stress independent behavior in saturated state. Backcalculation of the unbound nonlinear parameters according to the universal extended k ? model revealed that the k1 parameter decreased with increasing moisture content for both the unbound granular layer as well as unsaturated fine grained subgrade material.
  Authors: Salour, Farhad; Erlingsson, Sigurdur
  Authors: Salour, Farhad; Erlingsson, Sigurdur
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 293
  Paper Number: 13-1936
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Reducing Specimen Size of Concrete Flexural Strength Test for Safety and Ease of Handling
  Abstract: This study examines the feasibility of using smaller size concrete beam specimens for conducting flexural strength of concrete, using simple beam with third-point loading, according to AASHTO T97 procedure. A total of 22 mixtures, containing four different coarse aggregates (limestone, diabase, gravel and granite) with maximum size varying from ¾ in to 1.5 inch, were prepared. A total of 132 4x4x14 inch specimens and 132 6x6x21 inch standard specimens size were tested. The 4x4 inch specimens yielded higher flexural strengths, as expected from the literature review. Analysis of the flexural strength test data revealed a very good correlation between the smaller and standard size beams. A model is proposed to convert the flexural strength of the small size specimen to flexural strength of the standard size specimen.
  Authors: Ardani, Ahmad Allen; Tanesi, Jussara; Leavitt, John
  Authors: Ardani, Ahmad Allen; Tanesi, Jussara; Leavitt, John
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 427
  Paper Number: 13-1986
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Development and Implementation of a Network-Level Pavement Optimization Model for Ohio Department of Transportation
  Abstract: Optimal use of pavement maintenance and rehabilitation budget is essential in a constrained budget environment such as now. This paper presents the development and implementation of a network-level optimization model within a pavement management information system (PMIS) for the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT). Future pavement condition is predicted based on historical pavement data using a Markov transition probability model. Such transition probabilities are updated automatically when new condition data become available each year. The network-level optimization model integrates a linear programming model and the Markov transition probability model. This optimization tool is capable of (1) calculating the minimum budget required to achieve a desired level of pavement network condition, (2) maximizing the improvements of pavement network condition with a given amount of budget, and (3) determining the corresponding optimal treatment policy and budget allocations. It can be used by highway agencies as a decision support tool for network-level pavement management decisions.
  Authors: Wang, Shuo; Chou, Eddie Yein-Juin; Williams, Andrew
  Authors: Wang, Shuo; Chou, Eddie Yein-Juin; Williams, Andrew
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 479
  Paper Number: 13-2035
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Evaluation of a Heavy Polymer-Modified Binder Through Accelerated Pavement Testing
  Abstract: In 2001, the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) conducted an experimental study to assess the effect of polymer modified PG76-22 asphalt binder on rutting resistance of Superpave mixtures through Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT). The success of this study led to the use of PG76-22 binder on the final structural course for traffic level D (10 to > 30 million equivalent single axle loads, or ESALs) mixtures and the top two structural courses for traffic level E (¡Ý 30 million ESALs) mixtures. At times, however, localized failures still do occur at locations with concentrated truck traffic and low speeds. In response, a follow-up APT study was conducted to evaluate the performance of a polymer-modified asphalt binder meeting PG82-22 requirements. Results of the study indicated that the use of a heavy polymer modified binder improved rutting and cracking performance of asphalt mixtures.
  Authors: Greene, James; Choubane, Bouzid; Chun, Sanghyun
  Authors: Greene, James; Choubane, Bouzid; Chun, Sanghyun
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 574
  Paper Number: 13-2150
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Experimental Study on Characteristics of Base Friction for Concrete Pavement Structure in China
  Abstract: The restraint between the slab and the base of a concrete pavement structure is an important factor that should be taken into consideration when designing a concrete pavement. Excessive restraint can lead to unexpected distresses due to the daily cycle of ambient thermal influence and the changing moisture conditions that are ultimately detrimental to the performance of the pavement. Reasonable evaluation of base friction contributes to configuring joint sealing, slab thickness and reinforced steel.Semi-rigid base, mostly made of cement stabilized crushed stone, has been widely used as the typical base for cement concrete pavement in China. Usually, a polythene sheet would be placed between the concrete slab and the base to make the interface condition smooth. In certain cases, geotextile and asphalt bond breaker may also be used as a friction reducer.A series of push-off tests were performed under different conditions to study the characteristics of base friction for a typical concrete pavement in China. Polythene sheet, geotextile, emulsified asphalt and asphalt bond breakers of three different thicknesses(2cm, 4cm and 6cm) were placed between concrete slabs and semi-rigid bases. Concrete slabs were also cast directly on base with no bond breaker to study the influence of these factors on the characteristics of base friction. Also investigated in this study were the potential factors that affect the behavior of concrete slab under frictional drag, including rate of movements, slab thickness and number of movement cycles.
  Authors: Li, Sili
  Authors: Li, Sili
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 236
  Paper Number: 13-2291
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Development of Clegg Impact Value Thresholds for Minimizing Rutting of Cement-Treated Base Material Under Early Trafficking
  Abstract: In order to avoid early-age damage such as rutting, cement-treated base (CTB) materials must be allowed to cure before the pavement can be opened to early trafficking. One instrument shown to be effective in assessing the suitability of a CTB for early-age trafficking is the Clegg impact soil tester. In previous research, a Clegg impact value (CIV) threshold was proposed. That testing was conducted in northern Utah and consequently has limited application in other locations and with different CTB materials. Therefore, the objective of this research was to investigate the suitability of that CIV threshold in other conditions. Specifically, data were collected in Georgia, Texas and Idaho to supplement the Utah data. Following the field testing, the data were reduced on a site-specific basis, and CIV thresholds were selected for each site. The results indicate that the threshold is clearly a function of the 7-day unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the CTB material, and a chart was developed to assist engineers with selecting appropriate CIV thresholds based on a specified 7-day UCS.
  Authors: Reese, G. Benjamin; Guthrie, W. Spencer
  Authors: Reese, G. Benjamin; Guthrie, W. Spencer
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 664
  Paper Number: 13-2299
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Development of Enhanced Alaska Pavement Preservation Program and Strategy Selection Guide
  Abstract: Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (AKDOT&PF) would like to enhance their existing pavement preservation management program by utilizing effective pavement preservation treatments for cold regions so that pavement life extension can be achieved and the need for more costly rehabilitation deferred. By collaborating with the California Pavement Preservation Center and the Alaska University Transportation Center (AUTC), AKDOT&PF has recently completed a pavement preservation research project to improve its pavement preservation program. The research tasks included (a) conducting an international survey of cold regions on pavement preservation; (b) reviewing literature on cold region pavement preservation treatments; (c) monitoring existing preservation treatments used by Alaska; (d) developing a pavement preservation database; and (e) creating an online treatment selection computer program. The pavement preservation treatment tracking database is a web-based online program which includes the standard types of pavement preservation strategies used in Alaska; pavement construction, traffic, weather, and other performance related information; an integrated Google Map function to show the location of the pavement preservation projects; and multiple pavement condition survey results with supporting documents. The strategy selection program is integrated within the pavement preservation database. It utilizes the results of the survey and other information on Alaska treatments to conduct treatment strategy selection and life cycle cost analysis. Workshops have been given on the preservation treatments used in cold regions and use of the database and the strategy selection process. The tools developed for AKDOT&PF should be very helpful for long term implementation of an effective pavement preservation program. Other agencies could learn from Alaska’s experience.
  Authors: Cheng, DingXin; Hicks, R. Gary; Parsons, Angela; Zubeck, Hannele K.; Liu, Juanyu; Mullins, Anthony
  Authors: Cheng, DingXin; Hicks, R. Gary; Parsons, Angela; Zubeck, Hannele K.; Liu, Juanyu; Mullins, Anthony
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 256
  Paper Number: 13-2432
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Need for Effective Technology Transfer to Ensure the Sustainability of the Otta Seal
  Abstract: The Otta (graded aggregate) seal technology originated in the Otta valley in Norway in the 1960s. This type of bituminous seal was first introduced to Botswana in the late 1970s with design and construction being initially undertaken in-house and, subsequently, by the private sector. However, a somewhat haphazard approach to the transfer of this relatively new technology from the public to the private sector was largely responsible for initially suppressing the uptake of this innovative type of surfacing despite its eminent suitability for use with locally available, marginal quality aggregates. Many lessons have been learned from this experience which are likely to be useful to other countries where the introduction of the Otta seal is being contemplated. The primary objective of this paper is to highlight the critical importance of undertaking effective technology transfer to ensure the sustainability of any new type of technology, such as the Otta seal. The paper considers the path from research to implementation of new technology, including the typical constraints and barriers that are faced in the African region. In the context of the Otta seal experience in Botswana, the paper then identifies typical barriers and constraints to its ready adoption by the private sector and proposes measures for overcoming them. The paper concludes that a carefully crafted, pro-active approach to technology transfer is necessary to ensure the sustainability of the Otta seal in countries where it is being introduced for the first time.
  Authors: Pinard, Michael Ian
  Authors: Pinard, Michael Ian
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Design; Pavements
  Session: 245
  Paper Number: 13-2472
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Otta Seal Surfacing: Practical and Economic Alternative to Traditional Bituminous Surface Treatments
  Abstract: Natural gravel materials have traditionally been used for upgrading earth to gravel roads or for regravelling existing gravel roads. However, serious concerns have arisen regarding the continuous use of vast amounts of gravel - a non-renewable, finite resource - which is not only being rapidly depleted in many countries but is also unsustainable in the medium to long term. This has prompted road engineers to consider the use of low-cost bituminous surface treatments on these gravel roads as an alternative to regravelling. One type of surfacing that can provide an economic and practical alternative to traditional surfacings, such as the Chip seal, is the Otta seal. Unfortunately, lack of information regarding this relatively new type of bituminous surfacing has suppressed its more wide¬spread use, despite its excellent performance in a number of countries. In view of the above, this paper provides state-of-the-art information on the provision of the Otta seal surfacing as an economic and practical alternative to the more traditional bituminous surface treatments. The paper outlines the origin, properties, design and construction of the Otta seal and very briefly discusses its implementation impacts. Finally, the paper provides short information on the global use of the Otta seal.
  Authors: Overby, Charles
  Authors: Overby, Charles
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Design; Pavements
  Session: 245
  Paper Number: 13-2515
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• New Load Transfer Assembly for Jointed Concrete Pavements
  Abstract: Jointed concrete pavements continue to suffer from joint failure as the main distress and rehabilitation issue. The shear stress in the vicinity of dowel bars which is resulted from heavy traffic loads is the major factor that contributes to initiation of microcracks and joint faulting. A new load transfer assembly is introduced in this paper to be used in place of the conventional dowel bars. The introduced load transfer assembly was approved by the United States Patent Office as a new invention. The assembly comprises a spine and a plurality of dowel bars projecting from the spine where the spine comprises an elongated, freely rotating hinge. Finite element modeling was employed to evaluate the effect of using the new apparatus on the reduction of shear stress in concrete slabs. The finite element model was solved under various loading conditions and subgrade support. The obtained results showed that the suggested system reduces the shear stress level in the concrete by 15 to 20 percent. This amount of reduction in the shear stress can significantly reduce the shear-induced cracking near the joint. Furthermore, using the new load assembly was shown to be more effective on shear stress level than stabilizing the subgrade. The new invention has the capability of addressing curling and warping induced stresses as well as horizontal movement due to contraction and expansion. Furthermore, the new system prevents the dowel bars misalignment during new construction, as well as expediting the process of retrofitting damaged joints.
  Authors: Zeinali, Alireza; Mahboub, Kaymar C.; Southgate, Herbert F.
  Authors: Zeinali, Alireza; Mahboub, Kaymar C.; Southgate, Herbert F.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 236
  Paper Number: 13-2638
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Methodology to Characterize Agriculture-Related Trucking on Low-Volume Rural Roads to Support Asset Management
  Abstract: This paper develops a methodology to characterize agriculture-related trucking on low-volume rural roads. The methodology considers truck trips from the field to intermediate storage facilities (field-to-storage) and from these facilities to market (storage-to-market). The methodology, which applies the transportation systems analysis approach, leverages knowledge from local producers through in-person interviews to qualitatively and quantitatively characterize the transportation supply and demand that generate truck flows. Flow characterization in terms of truck volumes and trip-making characteristics supports asset management decisions, such as maintenance timing and upgrade investments, in addition to providing information for forecasting future demand and infrastructure impacts.The development and application of the methodology contributes in three ways. First, it characterizes truck flows from field-to-storage, a segment of the agricultural supply chain seldom considered by previous research. Second, it demonstrates the extent of information concerning road usage and impacts available from producers. Third, results from the application of the methodology to a study region in Manitoba reveal that: (a) smaller truck types are more commonly used for the shorter field-to-storage trips than storage-to-market trips; (b) actual distance traveled exceeds desired distance traveled, owing mainly to infrastructure-related regulatory constraints; and (c) trip length distributions for the storage-to-market segment exhibit a relationship between trip length and type of truck and commodity. The methodology is transferrable across jurisdictions and scalable for different geographic and temporal scopes. The specific results presented in this paper, however, may not be representative of conditions in other regions.
  Authors: Enns, Garry A.; Reimer, Mark Jonathon; Regehr, Jonathan D.
  Authors: Enns, Garry A.; Reimer, Mark Jonathon; Regehr, Jonathan D.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 240
  Paper Number: 13-2666
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Local Calibration Studies on DARWin-ME/Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement Performance Prediction Models
  Abstract: The AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) pavement performance models and the associated AASHTOWare® pavement design software of DARWin-ME are nationally calibrated using design inputs and distress data largely from the national Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP). Further calibration and validation studies are necessary for local highway agencies’ implementation by taking into account local materials, traffic information, and environmental conditions. This study aims to improve the accuracy of MEPDG/ DARWin-ME pavement performance predictions for Iowa pavement systems through local calibration of MEPDG prediction models. A total of 70 sites for both jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) and Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) pavement representing Iowa conditions were selected. The accuracy of the nationally calibrated MEPDG prediction models for Iowa conditions was evaluated. The local calibration factors of MEPDG performance prediction models were identified using both linear and nonlinear optimization approaches. The local calibration improved the accuracy of JPCP performance predictions and HMA rutting predictions. A comparison of MEPDG predictions with those from DARWin-ME was performed to assess if the local calibration coefficients determined from MEPDG version 1.1 software are acceptable in DARWin-ME, which has not been addressed before. Few differences are observed between DARWin-ME and MEPDG with national and local calibrated models for: (1) faulting and transverse cracking predictions for JPCP, and (2) rutting, alligator cracking and smoothness predictions for HMA. With the use of locally calibrated JPCP smoothness (IRI) prediction model for Iowa conditions, the prediction differences between DARWin-ME and MEPDG are reduced. Finally, recommendations are presented on the use of identified local calibration coefficients of DARWin-ME/MEPDG for Iowa pavement systems.
  Authors: Kim, Sunghwan; Ceylan, Halil; Di, Ma; Gopalakrishnan, Kasthurirangan
  Authors: Kim, Sunghwan; Ceylan, Halil; Di, Ma; Gopalakrishnan, Kasthurirangan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 267
  Paper Number: 13-2667
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Global Sensitivity Analysis of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical Performance Predictions
  Abstract: The new AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) provides pavement analysis and performance predictions under various “what-if” scenarios. The MEPDG performance predictions for the anticipated climatic and traffic conditions will depend on the values of the input parameters that characterize the pavement materials, layers, design features, and condition. This paper proposes comprehensive global sensitivity analyses (GSA) methodology to evaluate jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) performance predictions to MEPDG inputs under five climatic conditions and three traffic levels. MEPDG inputs evaluated in the analyses include traffic volume, layer thicknesses, material properties, groundwater depth, geometric parameters, and others. Correlations among MEPDG inputs were considered where appropriate. The GSA varied all inputs simultaneously across the entire problem domain for each of the 15 base cases (5 climates x 3 traffic levels). Two response surface modeling (RSM) approaches, multivariate linear regressions (MVLR) and artificial neural networks (ANN or NN), were developed to model the GSA results for evaluation of MEPDG input sensitivities across the entire problem domain. The ANN-based RSMs developed for the MEPDG JPCP performance predictions not only provide robust and accurate representations of the complex relationships between MEPDG inputs and distress outputs but also capture the variation of sensitivities across the problem domain. The design limit normalized sensitivity index (NSI) proposed in this study provides practical interpretation of sensitivity relating a given percentage change in a MEPDG input to the corresponding percentage change in predicted distress relative to its design limit value.
  Authors: Ceylan, Halil; Gopalakrishnan, Kasthurirangan; Kim, Sunghwan; Schwartz, Charles W.; Li, Rui
  Authors: Ceylan, Halil; Gopalakrishnan, Kasthurirangan; Kim, Sunghwan; Schwartz, Charles W.; Li, Rui
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 267
  Paper Number: 13-2690
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Wisconsin’s Method of Probing Portland Cement Concrete Pavement for Thickness Determination: Six-Year Statistical Review
  Abstract: The Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT) has used probing of fresh concrete to determine the thickness of Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavements since 1998. Two earlier studies which compared the results from probing and cores on WisDOT projects concluded that probing did provide an acceptable measure of pavement thickness, but it was recommended that an annual coring program be instituted to verify the probing results. This paper compares core depths with probe measurements for all the projects constructed by WisDOT from 2006 -2011 where both core and probe data were available. A total of 32 projects were analyzed representing over 6,600 probes and 1,200 cores. A statistical analysis was done to determine if the core and probe measurements gave the same results. A simulation model was developed to analyze the power of the t-test to predict if the two measurements are the same and to develop sample sizes needed to insure the two measurements differ only by a preselected amount. Results indicate that there are small, yet somewhat negligible in practice, differences between the core and probe methods of measurement. Recommendations are given for sample sizes needed based upon the size of the acceptable difference between the two methods.
  Authors: Whited, Gary C.; Stenhaug, Benjamin A.; Loh, Wei-Yin
  Authors: Whited, Gary C.; Stenhaug, Benjamin A.; Loh, Wei-Yin
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 237
  Paper Number: 13-2718
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Stabilization of High Sulfate Soils by Extended Mellowing
  Abstract: Using lime to stabilize expansive soils has been a preferred technique of practitioners for many years. However, heaving and premature pavement failures in lime-treated expansive subgrades containing sulfates led to the search for alternative stabilization techniques. Out of the several techniques developed, pre-compaction mellowing has potential to be effective in the stabilization of sulfate bearing soils. Yet this method still needs to be experimentally evaluated. In the current study, an attempt has been made to assess the stabilization effectiveness of pre-compaction mellowing on high sulfate soils. For this task, six natural expansive soils from the state of Texas, with sulfate contents varying from 200 ppm to 44,000 ppm, were collected. Soils with low sulfate contents were spiked with additional sulfates to make them high sulfate soils. Basic classification and chemical tests were performed to establish the clay mineralogy of the soils. Three different mellowing periods (0, 3 and 7 days) were studied. The test soils were treated with lime and allowed to mellow for the specified periods. Following the mellowing, the samples were subjected to three dimensional (3-D) volumetric swell, shrinkage and UCS tests. Reactive alumina and silica measurements were also attempted to study the consumptions of alumina and silica during sulfate-soil-lime reactions. It was observed that shrinkage was of no concern in treated soils since the shrinkage invariably reduced with lime treatment. In four of the six soils, pre-compaction mellowing successfully reduced sulfate-induced swell to a level below the natural expansive swelling. The UCS strengths of treated soils decreased slightly with mellowing. Reasons for the anomaly in UCS strengths and ineffectiveness of pre-compaction mellowing in two soils were explained.
  Authors: Puppala, Anand J.
  Authors: Puppala, Anand J.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 664
  Paper Number: 13-2709
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Project Emissions Estimator (Pe-2): Tool to Aid Contractors and Agencies in Assessing Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Highway Construction Projects
  Abstract: Motivated by the need to address challenges of global climate change, this study develops and implements a project based life cycle framework that can be used to estimate the carbon footprint for typical construction work-items found in reconstruction, rehabilitation and Capital Preventive Maintenance (CPM) projects. Applying existing life cycle assessment methods and inventories, the proposed framework considers the life cycle emissions of products and processes involved in the raw material acquisition and manufacturing phase, and the pavement construction phase. It also estimates emissions due to vehicular use and maintenance operations during the service life of the pavements. An implementation of the framework is a web-based tool, the Project Emission Estimator (PE-2) that can be used to benchmark the CO2 footprint of highway construction projects. The research suggests ways of implementing PE-2 tool by contractors and state transportation agencies to benchmark and help reduce the CO2 footprint of highway construction projects.
  Authors: Mukherjee, Amlan; Stawowy, Brian
  Authors: Mukherjee, Amlan; Stawowy, Brian
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Environment; Pavements
  Session: 705
  Paper Number: 13-2855
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Review of Precast Portland Cement Concrete Panel Technologies for Use in Expedient Portland Cement Concrete Airfield Pavement Repairs
  Abstract: Currently, there is a resurgent interest in the use of precast portland cement concrete (PCC) technologies for pavement construction and repairs. Precast PCC slabs using conventional materials have been utilized at irregular intervals for the last 50 or more years and can offer similar reductions in field installation time as cast in-place PCC with rapid strength gaining materials. This paper documents the history of precast pavement panels around the world for airfield and highway pavements for both repair and new construction work. This information will be used to assist in the development of a methodology for use in rapid full-depth airfield repairs ranging from temporary patches to permanent replacement slabs for rehabilitation. Specific challenges related to military airfield pavement repairs using precast PCC panels are also presented for optimization of a repair panel system for emergency airfield repairs.
  Authors: Priddy, Lucy Phillips; Bly, Peter Grant; Flintsch, Gerardo W.
  Authors: Priddy, Lucy Phillips; Bly, Peter Grant; Flintsch, Gerardo W.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 427
  Paper Number: 13-2956
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Development and Implementation of a Beam Bridging Filter for Use in Airport Groove Identification
  Abstract: Transverse grooves on runways prevent hydroplaning of aircraft at high speeds and are therefore a vital component of air safety. To accurately identify groove geometry, this paper proposes a new type of beam bridging filter using a mechanical model to reduce the influence of short dips in pavement elevation profiles. This approach can adjust the effect of a tire’s contact with the road surface by modeling the contact area as a beam element with a series of compressive springs. If small dips or grooves with characteristic length significantly less than the length of the tire contact length are present in the pavement profile, the beam bridging filter simulates a bridge over the dips or grooves as would be formed by the tire’s contact with the ground. The beam bridging filter is compared with other types of bridging filter: 1) the physical straightedge method; 2) simulation of a profilograph wheel; 3) the FHWA bridging (moving average) filter; and 4) the UMTRI bridging (improved moving average) filter. Application of the bridging filter is demonstrated by incorporation in a transverse groove identification computer program for use on airport runway longitudinal profiles. The example demonstrates that using the proposed beam bridging filter leads to improved groove identification compared to the current low-pass filter implementation.
  Authors: Wang, Qiang; Hayhoe, Gordon F.
  Authors: Wang, Qiang; Hayhoe, Gordon F.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 711
  Paper Number: 13-3063
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Evaluation of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Materials from Ultrathin Bonded Bituminous Surface
  Abstract: Ultra-thin bonded bituminous surface (UBBS), also known as Novachip, is a preventive maintenance or thin surface treatment that consists of a thin, gap-graded hot-mix asphalt(HMA) layer applied over a thick polymer-modified emulsion. The Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) has been using UBBS since 2002. However, some of these projects are now being rehabilitated. The objective of this study is to evaluate whether reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) materials from existing UBBS layers can be used in chip seal and Superpave mixtures. UBBS millings were studied with two different polymer-modified emulsions to assess their performance as precoated aggregates in chipseal. The ASTM D7000-04 sweep test was used to assess chip retention of UBBS millings. Three different mix designs were developed for both 12.5-mm and 9.5-mm nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) Superpave mixtures using a PG 70-22 asphalt binder and three different percentages (0%, 10%, and 20%) of reclaimed UBBS materials. The designed Superpave mixes were then tested for performance in terms of rutting and stripping using the Hamburg wheel tracking device (HWTD) and moisture sensitivity by the modified Lottman tests. Sweep test results showed that UBBS millings did not improve chip retention. Superpave mix design data indicated volumetric properties of Superpave mixes with UBBS millings met all requirements specified by KDOT. HWTD and modified Lottman test results indicated all designed mixes performed better with the addition of UBBS millings as RAP materials.
  Authors: Musty, Haritha
  Authors: Musty, Haritha
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 285
  Paper Number: 13-3060
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Haul Time Effects on Unmodified, Foamed, and Additive-Modified Binders Used in Hot-Mix Asphalt
  Abstract: In recent years, “warm” technologies have made enormous changes to the flexible pavement industry in a variety of manners. Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is the most recognizable “warm” technology product, though there are other advantages associated with better compaction over a wide range of temperatures that have made very long haul distances appealing for some applications. This paper focuses on using warm mix technology at traditional hot mix production temperatures for the purpose of facilitating very long haul distances. The primary objective of this paper was to investigate how binder related properties change with haul time when material is mixed at hot mix temperatures, and a secondary objective was to determine if any behavioral differences were present between asphalt binders with no additive, foamed asphalt binders, and asphalt binders with a chemical additive. Plant mixed asphalt was used for the investigation. The overall conclusion of the research was that haul times of 1 to 8 hr produced no major differences in aging for a given binder type or between binder types. Subtle differences were observed between binder types in some instances (e.g. low temperature properties were slightly better for mixes using warm mix technologies relative to the one that did not use warm mix technology).
  Authors: Howard, Isaac L.; Baumgardner, Gaylon L.; Jordan, Walter Stephens; Menapace, Andrew Michael; Mogawer, Walaa S.; Hemsley, Mike
  Authors: Howard, Isaac L.; Baumgardner, Gaylon L.; Jordan, Walter Stephens; Menapace, Andrew Michael; Mogawer, Walaa S.; Hemsley, Mike
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 207
  Paper Number: 13-3093
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Use of Blast Furnace Slag as a Sustainable Material in Concrete Pavements
  Abstract: Slag materials are by-products of metallurgical processes that include metals production from ore and refinement of impure metals. They are residues from lime-based inorganic fluxes used in metal purification that solidify upon cooling. Slags are essentially waste materials that can be used in sustainable applications. Blast furnace slags and steel slags have been used for different pavement-related applications. In this paper, sustainability aspects of using air-cooled blast furnace slag (ACBFS) as a coarse aggregate in concrete pavements and considerations for its use in this application are presented.On the subject of sustainability, appropriate use of ACBFS rather than disposing of it as waste can significantly enhance sustainability by effectively contributing to all aspects of the “triple-bottom line,” resulting in economic, environmental, and social benefits as long as the performance of the concrete structure is not compromised through the use of ACBFS because any short-term economic and environmental gain will be rapidly eclipsed by the economic, environmental, and social costs of poor pavement performance. Thus, it is essential that engineers and contractors who use ACBFS aggregates in concrete understand its unique properties to make sure that the expected performance of the pavement over its design life will be achieved.Chemical and physical properties of ACBFS along with their effects on fresh and hardened concrete properties are discussed in the paper. Also discussed, are pavement design and construction considerations for using ACBFS as coarse aggregate in concrete for pavement applications.
  Authors: Jahangirnejad, Shervin; Van Dam, Thomas John; Morian, Dennis A.; Smith, Kurt D.; Perera, Rohan W.; Tyson, Samuel S.
  Authors: Jahangirnejad, Shervin; Van Dam, Thomas John; Morian, Dennis A.; Smith, Kurt D.; Perera, Rohan W.; Tyson, Samuel S.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 284
  Paper Number: 13-3101
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Virginia Quiet Pavement Demonstration Projects: Initial Functional Assessment
  Abstract: This paper describes the first stages of the development of a formal ¡°quiet¡± pavement use guideline for Virginia. It chronicles the selection of lower-noise pavement technologies (i.e., ¡°quiet¡± pavement [QP]); the development and construction of the first season (2011) of QP demonstration projects; and the evaluation tools and analysis being used to compare the performance of the alternative strategies. After one winter of service, the quiet asphalt technologies were measurably (2 decibels or less) less noisy than the control surfaces on average and noticeably (¡Ý 3 dB) more quiet in several specific cases. The quiet concrete technology, the Next Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS), maintained an obvious (5 dB) noise advantage over the control concrete surface.Beyond tire-pavement noise, the QP technologies have a distinct advantage over the control surfaces when it comes to achieved ride quality. The NGCS is very smooth, and contractors earned incentives for ride quality with the quiet asphalt materials, including (and especially with) the materials that were placed at a 1-inch thickness. Although some wheel path consolidation was evident in the texture data for the asphalt technologies, all of the QP surfaces are exhibiting excellent skid resistance and are receiving consistent recognition for good wet-weather service.
  Authors: McGhee, Kevin Kenneth; de León Izeppi, Edgar David; Flintsch, Gerardo W.; Mogrovejo, Daniel
  Authors: McGhee, Kevin Kenneth; de León Izeppi, Edgar David; Flintsch, Gerardo W.; Mogrovejo, Daniel
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 814
  Paper Number: 13-3150
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Subsurface Joint Deterioration Detection: MnROAD Blind Test Comparison of Ultrasound Array Technology with Conventional Nondestructive Methods
  Abstract: This paper presents the results of a blind test evaluation of various nondestructive testing techniques including well established methods such as chain dragging, rod sounding, and GPR as compared to an emerging ultrasonic array technology in determining the extent of the concrete joint deterioration. Nondestructive testing at two concrete pavement joints at MnROAD was performed and the results were independently evaluated and submitted to MnDOT. Significant discrepancies in subsurface deterioration assessments were observed among these techniques. Forensic evaluation (trenching and coring) were utilized to resolve the discrepancies in test results. It was concluded that the ultrasound array analysis was the only method able to accurately determine the horizontal extent of the deterioration otherwise undetected by the other available nondestructive evaluation methods. Additionally, ultrasonic tomography analysis was able to determine the depth of the deterioration. This makes this emerging technology an attractive alternative to traditional NDT methods for concrete pavement joint assessment.
  Authors: Hoegh, Kyle; Khazanovich, Lev; Worel, Benjamin James; Yu, H. Thomas
  Authors: Hoegh, Kyle; Khazanovich, Lev; Worel, Benjamin James; Yu, H. Thomas
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 260
  Paper Number: 13-2048
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Design and Constructability of Emulsion-Stabilized Bases forFull-Depth Reclamation
  Abstract: Full-depth reclamation (FDR) of base courses with calcium-based stabilizers has been a common practice in many areas of Texas. Owing to its speed of operation and minimal lane closure period, asphalt emulsion has been recently used in a number of FDR projects in low volume roads as well. A few cases of premature failure of these stabilized bases primarily due to improper (or lack of) mix design or construction techniques led to a thorough evaluation and recommendations for an improved mix design and construction specification. The outcomes of a thorough evaluation of construction-related, material-related and environmental-related parameters that significantly impact the performance of emulsion-treated base materials were used to propose laboratory test procedures for mix design and guidelines for the construction of bases with emulsion. The practical aspects of this study that are incorporated in a trial specification are discussed in this paper.
  Authors: Nazarian, Soheil; Yuan, Deren
  Authors: Nazarian, Soheil; Yuan, Deren
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 740
  Paper Number: 13-2256
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Twenty-One-Year Field Performance of Joint Resealing Project at Fairchild Air Force Base
  Abstract: In 1989, the US Army Engineer Research and Development Center and Crafco, Incorporated initiated a reearch project effort to develop improved materials and processes for sealing joints in Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements. Objectives were to develop specifications for improved hot-applied, jet-fuel-resistant (JFR) and non-jet-fuel-resistant (non-JFR) sealants and to determine the impact of installation configuration on field performance.The laboratory phase identified desired sealant properties, evaluated sealants for those properties, and developed sealants with improved low temperature and aging properties. The field phase was installed in June 1991 at Fairchild Air Force Base to determine performance of developed sealants compared to standard sealants, and to determine if performance could be improved by changing installation geometry. Thirteen different sealants were installed. The field study documented installation and evaluations at 6 and 12 months. After study completion, the installations were monitored several additional times. Detailed papers were prepared at 5 and 10 years. At 10 years, some of the sealants had greater than a 10 year life.In 2011 the installations reached 20 years old. The JFR sections had been replaced, and non-JFR sections were still intact and were evaluated in April 2012. This paper presents the 21 year evaluation results. One silicone sealant and the improved non-JFR sealant achieved a 21 year life. Results show that the flush fill installation geometry increased life of the hot-applied asphalt sealants by over 50% compared to the standard recessed configuration, and should be considered for joint sealant installations.
  Authors: Chehovits, James G.; Lynch, Larry N.; Luders, David G.; Belangie, Michael
  Authors: Chehovits, James G.; Lynch, Larry N.; Luders, David G.; Belangie, Michael
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 773
  Paper Number: 13-2691
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Durability Assessment of Coarse Aggregates for Hot-Mix Asphalt in Maine
  Abstract: In this study, Micro-Deval and L.A. Abrasion were used to evaluate the durability of 72 individual coarse aggregates used for HMA in Maine. Aggregates used in hot-mix asphalt (HMA) must be durable and resistant to abrasion and degradation. Material loss in HMA pavements has recently been observed by MDOT and aggregate degradation has been hypothesized as a possible contributor. The Micro-Deval results showed no correlation with results from the L.A. Abrasion and the range in values was quite large. Two alternative methods of analyzing Micro-Deval were employed to measure the change in gradation of aggregate samples. A relatively large portion of tested aggregate sources were found to degrade significantly in the Micro-Deval test while having acceptable AASHTO Micro-Deval loss values, this presumably due to fracturing instead of abrasion. The weighted average method and area between curves method proved to be effective in measuring the change in particle size distribution not captured with the Method 1 Micro-Deval loss value. In addition, a significant influence of initial grading size was found in all of the Micro-Deval data with finer initial gradations producing higher loss values. The alternative analysis methods for Micro-Deval are recommended for use in detecting degradation not captured by the traditional Micro-Deval value.
  Authors: Nener-Plante, Derek
  Authors: Nener-Plante, Derek
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 285
  Paper Number: 13-2713
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Investigating the Potential to Alleviate the Expansive Nature of Steel Slag Aggregate in Portland Cement Concrete
  Abstract: Sustainability in the built environment is of increasing importance, particularly in the transportation sector. Slags from the iron and steel industries can be used in some cases to replace natural aggregates in construction. State DOT’s do not permit the use of steel slag, a by-product of the production of steel, as an aggregate in portland cement concrete (PCC). However, that potential exists provided the expansive nature of untreated steel slag can be alleviated. In this study, a review of world-wide research and case studies was undertaken. Although a few case studies and limited field applications were found, the vast majority of the research has been in the laboratory. Much of this work has shown that steel slag can be treated to be non-expansive and acceptable for use in PCC. It should be noted that when evaluating these research results, it is important to carefully consider the properties of the slags used, which may differ significantly from slags produced in the U.S. due to differences in sources or industrial processes. While the various treatment processes discussed have shown various degrees of success in reducing the expansive nature of steel slag, there is variability in the properties of steel slag, current treatment processes are not uniformly adopted, testing has not been performed on a large enough scale, and the processes do not reduce all risk of volume instability. Hence, more study is needed, and therefore at this time the use of steel slag in rigid pavement applications is not recommended.
  Authors: Fronek, Brad; Bosela, Paul A.; Delatte, Norbert Joseph
  Authors: Fronek, Brad; Bosela, Paul A.; Delatte, Norbert Joseph
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 284
  Paper Number: 13-2869
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Development of Fog Seal Field Test Methods and Performance Evaluation Using Polymer-Modified Emulsions
  Abstract: One of the most cost-effective pavement preservation treatments used in North Carolina is the bituminous surface treatment, or so-called chip seal. However, the major concern with chip seals is aggregate loss. Fog seals can be used to prevent or at least reduce the occurrence of aggregate loss in chip seals and extend the service life of the pavement. Other benefits of fog seal are low cost, ease of construction, and a desirable black appearance, to name a few. A few disadvantages of fog seals, such as delay in opening to traffic and reduction in skid resistance, also have been reported. In order to achieve a satisfactory fog seal performance, it is necessary to understand the fog seal emulsion properties (e.g., curing time and adhesive behavior). In this study, polymer-modified emulsions (PMEs) are compared to unmodified emulsions as fog seal materials. The study shows that polymer modification can improve certain properties of emulsions, such as an increase in adhesion. The evaporation test and the pneumatic adhesion tension testing instrument (PATTI) test are used to investigate the emulsion curing and adhesive behavior. Also, the rolling ball test and the damping test have been developed as in situ test methods to determine an appropriate traffic opening time for roadways treated with fog seals. Finally, the third-scale model mobile load simulator (MMLS3) is employed to compare the performance properties of the fog seal emulsions. The main findings presented in this paper are that: (1) the use of PMEs improves the emulsion bond strength and lessens the time a road is closed to traffic; (2) PMEs show more effective emulsion curing rates than unmodified emulsions; (3) strong relationships exist between the bond strength and both the rolling distance and the percentage of stained area that are measured from the rolling ball test and damping test, respectively; (4) the field test methods can be used to help determine whether emulsions are fully cured or not; and (5) PMEs exhibit better aggregate retention and bleeding performance properties than unmodified emulsions as a fog seal.Keywords: pavement preservation treatments, fog seal, polymer-modified emulsions (PMEs), curing time, adhesive behavior, field test methods
  Authors: Im, Jeong Hyuk; Kim, Y. Richard
  Authors: Im, Jeong Hyuk; Kim, Y. Richard
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 654
  Paper Number: 13-2996
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Improving the Properties of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement for Roadway Base Applications Through Blending and Chemical Stabilization
  Abstract: Finding innovative ways to incorporate Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) into highway base course applications will provide both environmental and economic benefits by allowing in situ recycling of material for projects such as widening or shoulder addition. RAP is a well-drained granular material, however 100% RAP has low bearing strength and creeps under load. The objective of this research was to develop methods to improve RAP’s strength while reducing creep to an acceptable level through blending with high quality crushed limestone aggregate and/or by chemical stabilization with asphalt emulsion or Portland cement. RAP/aggregate blends with and without chemical stabilization were compacted by modified Proctor method, cured, and tested for strength and creep. Strength was tested by the limerock bearing ratio (LBR), a variant of the CBR test. Specimens were tested dry and soaked to evaluate retained strength. One dimensional creep testing was performed using seven day oedometer tests. RAP/aggregate blends have the potential to be used successfully as base course material. Blends of RAP with 50% limerock (LR) base material attained acceptable LBR strength and creep with the addition of 1% of either asphalt emulsion or cement. Blends of RAP with 75% or more limerock attained close to acceptable LBR and low levels of creep without any chemical stabilizer. Significant variability was noted between results with different blends and stabilizing agents. Performance testing should be conducted to establish the suitability of a specific RAP/aggregate blend.
  Authors: Bleakley, Albert M.; Cosentino, Paul J.
  Authors: Bleakley, Albert M.; Cosentino, Paul J.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 285
  Paper Number: 13-2062
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Modeling of Slab-Foundation Friction in Jointed Concrete Pavements Under Nonlinear Thermal Gradient or Traffic Loads
  Abstract: The accurate modeling of the thermo-mechanical response of jointed concrete pavements is of primary importance in the design of pavement sections. From the initial development of pavement analysis software in the early 1970’s, it was recognized that the Finite Element Method was the most appropriate modeling tool due to its potential ability to capture all the pavement response features. A series of software development efforts have culminated in the production of NYSLAB, a jointed pavement analysis tool that has the capability to predict the complete thermo-mechanical response including pavement curling and the interactions that occur between the slabs and the foundation. This paper presents a series of studies developed in NYSLAB looking specifically into the slab-foundation friction generated by nonlinear thermal gradients and traffic loads. Nonlinear temperature gradients can produce slab expansion and contraction that lead to the generation of frictional tractions between slabs and foundation. The prediction of these friction tractions is complicated by the curling of the slabs that cause some portions of the slabs to lose contact with the foundation. The results presented here highlight the importance of considering these frictional tractions in the analysis of jointed concrete pavements since they have a significant impact on PCC slabs bending stresses.
  Authors: Zokaei Ashtiani, Mohammad Ali
  Authors: Zokaei Ashtiani, Mohammad Ali
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 236
  Paper Number: 13-3147
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Optimal Averaging and Localized Weak Spot Identification for Traffic Speed Deflectometer Deflection Slope Measurements
  Abstract: One of the main difficulties that arise during the analysis of continuous deflection measurements is how to reduce the measurement variability (noise) without smoothing out important features and therefore adversely affecting the true spatial variability. So far, no objective method to reduce the noise without affecting the true spatial variability has been proposed. In this paper, we propose using the smoothing spline determined by minimizing the generalized cross-validation (GCV) criteria to denoise Traffic Speed Deflectometer (TSD) deflection slope measurements. The GCV criteria finds the optimal trade-off between variance and bias so that the estimated smoothing spline gives the “best” smoothing fit (weighted moving average fit), in terms of minimum mean square error with respect to the true deflection slope values. Furthermore, the smoothing spline fit allows the construction of a confidence interval for the true deflection slope as well as the use of outlier detection methods to identify localized weak spots such as those due to cracks or weak joints in jointed concrete sections. In each case, the distribution and standard deviation of the measurement error is needed. We show that TSD measurement error distribution is well represented by a normal distribution and use an outlier robust method to evaluate this standard deviation. Example data analysis are given using (1) computer generated data to simulate smoothly varying deflection slope profile as well as homogeneous profiles with localized weak spots and (2) actual TSD deflection slope measurements. The presented results show that much more can be done with measurements form continuous deflection devices.
  Authors: Katicha, Samer Wehbe; Flintsch, Gerardo W.; Ferne, Brian Walter
  Authors: Katicha, Samer Wehbe; Flintsch, Gerardo W.; Ferne, Brian Walter
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 260
  Paper Number: 13-4114
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Drainage Capabilities of Nonwoven Fabric Interlayer in an Unbonded Concrete Overlay
  Abstract: Fabric interlayers have been used for the last 30 years in Germany as a bond breaker between cement treated bases and jointed concrete pavements to prevent reflective cracking and increase drainage. Recently, research has begun in the US to determine if fabric interlayers can also be used to the same effect in unbonded concrete overlays. The goal of this research was to determine the drainage capabilities of a fabric interlayer in an unbonded concrete overlay. A test slab was built in the Minne-ALF accelerated load testing facility at the University of Minnesota consisting of a five inch concrete base slab, a fabric interlayer, and a five inch concrete overlay. The transmisivity (flow velocity) and flow rate of water running through the fabric was tested under both static and dynamic conditions. Actuators were used to simulate an 18 kip axle load in the dynamic load case. The fabric interlayer was found to drain well, and exceeded the required transmisivity under both static and dynamic loading.
  Authors: Lederle, Rita; Hoegh, Kyle; Burnham, Thomas R.; Khazanovich, Lev
  Authors: Lederle, Rita; Hoegh, Kyle; Burnham, Thomas R.; Khazanovich, Lev
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 460
  Paper Number: 13-4107
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Performance of Various Pavement Repairs in Low-Volume Roadways over Expansive Soil
  Abstract: Expansive soil is considered one of the most common causes of pavement distresses. Depending upon the moisture level, expansive soils will experience changes in volume due to moisture fluctuations from seasonal variations. The objective of this research was to evaluate existing repair projects on selected roadways. Those roadways experienced failures in the form of fatigue and rutting in the wheel path, and longitudinal (faulted) cracking including edge cracking. The causes of those failures were mainly linked to high plasticity expansive soil and narrow pavement. The study involved visual survey, field and laboratory testing, surface condition/ride data and structural design calculations for three project sites. The study concluded, from 3-14 years of performance records, that geogrid reinforcement, lime-treated subgrade and cement-treated base were found to be effective treatment options for low-volume roadways where high plasticity expansive soil exists.
  Authors: Dessouky, Samer H; Oh, Jeong Ho; Bourland, Mark Cleve; Ilias, Mohammad; Lee, Sang Ick; Park, Dae-Wook
  Authors: Dessouky, Samer H; Oh, Jeong Ho; Bourland, Mark Cleve; Ilias, Mohammad; Lee, Sang Ick; Park, Dae-Wook
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 808
  Paper Number: 13-4208
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Concrete Pavement Patching Challenges in Virginia
  Abstract: In order to achieve quality and longevity for rigid pavements with limited resources (funds and manpower) full depth and partial depth patches are used to repair transverse cracks, joints with excessive faulting, spalling, and punch-outs in Virginia. Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) has worked extensively over many years to have a cost and time efficient methodology for repairing concrete pavements through patching. As a result of that, VDOT moved from a strict method and means specifications to ‘quasi performance’ specifications with a mandatory warranty period of one year for the concrete patches. The warranty covered any premature failure related to material and workmanship. The historical performance data, though not formally documented, for these concrete patches revealed only a few patch failures took place before one year (typical warranty period). However, in spite of having a low risk of failure, the consequence/impact of even limited failure is very significant in terms of traffic delays during the repair, especially on highways with high traffic volumes. Also, over time, the department felt that in case of premature failures, it was hard to resolve the warranty issues with the contractors. In addition, there were concerns regarding the fresh concrete strength gain and minimum time before the concrete patch could be opened to traffic. Therefore, construction provisions had been revised in the past to improve the pavement performance and resolve construction related issues. The proposed provisions for patching address three aspects (a) No excuse warranty, (b) minimum compressive strength before a concrete patch can be opened to traffic, and (c) Quality Assurance of the concrete mix design along with the use of Maturity Meter during construction. The HIPERPAV software was used to assess some performance aspects of the concrete patches based on the available materials and climatic conditions in Virginia. This paper highlights the challenges involved in developing practical concrete pavement patching specifications in Virginia. Several concerns and solutions adopted for patching are documented. Several hypothetical scenarios were analyzed using HIPERPAV software to provide a general idea about the sensitivity of the parameters that impact concrete performance. In addition, the impact of these maintenance practices in achieving long-life pavement in Virginia is also discussed.
  Authors: Elfino, Mohamed Khamis
  Authors: Elfino, Mohamed Khamis
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 237
  Paper Number: 13-4297
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Porous Asphalt Performance in Cold Climate: Research at MnROAD
  Abstract: There is limited data on full-depth porous asphalt (PA) pavement performance in wet-freeze regions in the USA. To further study cold-weather PA performance, research was performed at the Minnesota Road Research (MnROAD) Low Volume Road (LVR). The objective of this research was to study the durability, maintenance requirements, hydrologic benefits, and environmental considerations of a full-depth porous asphalt (PA) pavement, installed on a low-volume roadway in a cold climate. To meet the objective, two porous asphalt test cells were constructed on the LVR test loop. One porous asphalt cell was constructed over a sand subgrade (MnROAD cell 86) and one over a clay subgrade (cell 88). In addition, a sealed/impervious, dense graded hot mix asphalt (DGHMA) control section (cell 87) was constructed directly adjacent to the porous sections, for comparison of water runoff, pavement performance and durability.This paper summarizes the mixture design, thickness determination, construction, and performance aspects of the porous asphalt test cells. The data presented herein describes the PA cells after the first three years of service (December 2008 to December 2011) and approximately 40,000 applied asphalt equivalent single axle loads (ESALs). The PA test cells performed well, in spite of what is considered to be significant loading for this type of pavement. The significant pavement distresses observed were rutting in the loaded lane and shallow surface raveling. Findings resulting from this study and ongoing monitoring of the test cells will contribute to the design and maintenance of full-depth porous asphalt pavements in Minnesota and other cold climates. Data collection for the initial project ended in December 2011, the final report was published in April. 2012.
  Authors: Dai, Shongtao; Lebens, Matthew
  Authors: Dai, Shongtao; Lebens, Matthew
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 574
  Paper Number: 13-4381
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Seasonal Resilient Modulus Inputs for Tennessee Soils and Their Effects on Asphalt Pavement Performance
  Abstract: The soil subgrade, which supports the above pavement layers and traffic, should be stiff enough to maintain the integrity of the pavement structures and the smoothness of the pavement surfaces. The resilient modulus, as a property of subgrade stiffness, is an important input in the AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG). In the MEPEG input level 1, the generalized universal model is used to represent the resilient modulus, and coefficients for this model are required. The change to this model has raised the interest of states converting old resilient modulus test data, which may have been presented in terms of other models, into the general universal model as implemented in MEPDG. Based on cyclic triaxial load test data of clayey soils in Tennessee (TN), coefficients of the generalized model were regressed. Also the coefficients were regressed from soil physical properties, which can be utilized as an alternate time-saving and economical method to obtain soil resilient modulus. The coefficients were obtained at different post-compaction water contents, to allow the estimation of pavement response under natural seasonal variation of subgrade water content. Two typical pavement sections, I-40 Knox and SR-36 Washington, were evaluated for pavement performance utilizing a multiple layered software Wealsea 3.0 and the version 1.1 MEPDG software. The results showed that because moisture variation significantly affected the subgrade resilient modulus, without including these effects with appropriate coefficients for the generalized model the full pavement performance is not captured.
  Authors: Zhou, Changjun; Huang, Baoshan; Drumm, Eric C.; Shu, Xiang; Dong, Qiao; Udeh, Sampson
  Authors: Zhou, Changjun; Huang, Baoshan; Drumm, Eric C.; Shu, Xiang; Dong, Qiao; Udeh, Sampson
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 246
  Paper Number: 13-4351
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Green Infrastructure Design for Pavement Systems Subject to Rainfall-Runoff Loadings
  Abstract: Impervious surfaces alter hydrology while impacting the chemical balances of water resources. While historical issues of flooding are still a concern, chemistry, loads and aesthetics are companion concerns. Recently, Total Maximum Daily Loads have been promulgated. Additionally, Florida has promulgated no net load increases for runoff and pollutants and is facing imminent numeric criteria for nutrients. With recent trends towards low impact development (LID) and green infrastructure, hydrologic restoration, reuse and source control are part of urban retrofit design practice. This project demonstrates that hydrologic and pollutant load can be managed with site re-design providing no net increase for long-term loadings. Specifically, the proposed design retrofits an existing surface parking facility with a series of design elements. A biofiltration area reactor (BAR) is clay-lined for water table and denitrification management. A linear infiltration reactor (LIR) of cementitious permeable pavement provides infiltration/evaporation, filtration and adsorption. Pavement sweeping provides source control. Continuous simulations with climate and site data indicate that re-design can achieve a no load increase. Cost estimates demonstrate that re-design is comparable to conventional construction costs while incorporating Florida-friendly landscape. Additionally, design options yield a lower cost per nutrient load treated compared to conventional Florida Best Management Practices (BMPs).
  Authors: Sansalone, John Joseph
  Authors: Sansalone, John Joseph
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Hydraulics and Hydrology; Pavements
  Session: 565
  Paper Number: 13-4359
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Impact of Error in Pavement Condition Data on Output of Network-Level Pavement Management Systems
  Abstract: The quality of pavement condition data is important not only in assessing the current condition of the network but also in the prediction of future condition and the planning of future maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) activities. This paper provides a quantitative assessment of the impact of error magnitude and type (systematic and random) in pavement condition data on the accuracy of PMS outputs (i.e. forecasted needed budget and M&R activities in a multi-year planning period). The process developed to simulate the propagation of pavement condition errors to the output of PMS consists of five components: condition data generation, error perturbation, condition prediction, M&R prioritization, and output generation. This process was applied to the 2011 pavement condition dataset of the Bryan district, Texas. In 2011, this roadway network consisted of approximately 3,200 centerline miles. The study results show that both systematic and random errors can highly distort some PMS output parameters even in error ranges that may be considered acceptable in practice. For example, the case study shows that, with 95% confidence, a ±10 standard error in a 0-100 condition index can result in 2-5.8% error in estimated portions of the network needing maintenance, rehabilitation, or “do nothing.” Similarly, a constant additive systematic error of -2 in a 0-100 condition index can result in 2-3% error in estimated portions of the network needing maintenance, rehabilitation, or “do nothing.” These effects tend to persist throughout the planning period. These findings can help highway agencies to optimize pavement condition data collection processes by focusing on error levels and types that cause the greatest impact on PMS output.
  Authors: Saliminejad, Siamak; Gharaibeh, Nasir G.
  Authors: Saliminejad, Siamak; Gharaibeh, Nasir G.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 780
  Paper Number: 13-4466
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Influence of Quieter Pavement and Absorptive Barriers on US-101 in Marin County, California
  Abstract: A highway-widening project was recently completed on US 101 near San Rafael in Northern California. The project consisted of adding two high occupancy vehicle lanes each direction, relocating the southbound existing sound wall, and adding a multi-purpose path. As there was an existing sound wall in the northbound direction, additional conventional noise abatement was not considered under feasible under Caltrans and FHWA policy for this Type 1 project. However, two elements were included to improve aspects of the existing noise environment. These included overlaying all lanes of the completed project area with quieter, open graded asphalt and applying absorptive treatments to the traffic side of both barriers. To document any potential benefit of these features, the Transit Authority of Marin commissioned a study of the pre and post project noise levels. These included measurements of wayside noise levels above and behind the northbound sound wall and of tire/pavement noise using the on-board sound intensity method. These measurements indicated that 6 to 7 dB reductions in wayside noise levels both above and behind the barrier could be accounted for by the reduction in tire/pavement noise. As the effectiveness of the added absorption could not be directly isolated in the measurements, the benefit of this feature was assessed through acoustic modeling. The results of this analysis indicated that additional reductions of 3 to 5 dB could occur for receptors elevated above the roadway, shielded from the ongoing traffic, but with view of the opposing sound wall, and at distances of 500 ft or more away. Near the highway, the reduction provided by the absorptive was 1 to 1½ dB or less.
  Authors: Donavan, Paul; Lodico, Dana M.
  Authors: Donavan, Paul; Lodico, Dana M.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Environment; Pavements
  Session: 785
  Paper Number: 13-4640
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Field and Laboratory Evaluation of Winter Season Pavement Patching Materials in Tennessee
  Abstract: Field survey and laboratory tests were conducted to evaluate the performance of four patching materials used in winter season pothole repair in Tennessee. The adhesiveness, cohesion, moisture susceptibility and loaded wheel test were conducted to investigate the bonding, freeze-thaw resistance and rutting resistance of the patching materials. Statistical analysis on the six month field survey showed that edge disintegration and missing patch are the mainly distress of “throw and roll” patching in winter season. Severe freeze condition, high traffic level and vehicle speed accelerated the deterioration of patching. Patchings with lower depth and larger size especially longer longitudinal length deteriorated faster. Both field and adhesiveness test showed that the cold dump mix had high potential to edge disintegration and missing patch, which is probably caused by the insufficient binder content or an excessive stiff binder. One cold bag mix showed high potential to deformation and low strength performance, mainly due to its single size gradation and weak aggregate skeleton. Cohesion test conducted at different temperature and compaction times presented consistent ranking of materials. 25°C and 15 blows were recommended to evaluate the cohesion of materials at moderate temperature. Two cold mixes did not withstand the 60°C water bath in the freeze-thaw cycling due to the high air voids and 25°C was suggested instead. Reduced wheel load is recommended to improve the effectiveness of loaded wheel test for cold patching mixtures.
  Authors: Dong, Qiao; Huang, Baoshan; Shu, Xiang
  Authors: Dong, Qiao; Huang, Baoshan; Shu, Xiang
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Maintenance and Preservation; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 808
  Paper Number: 13-4772
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Stabilizing Sulfate-Rich Soils Using Traditional Stabilizers: Continuing Case Study of State Highway 289 in Grayson County, Texas
  Abstract: Because of the risk of sulfate induced heave, the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) has limited the use of traditional, calcium-based stabilizers on construction projects where sulfate concentrations exceed 8,000 parts per million (ppm). Beyond that limit non-traditional additives must be evaluated for use, or the material must be removed and replaced with a select material with acceptable sulfate concentrations. Significant sulfate concentrations were encountered on the State Highway (SH) 289 extension project in October, 2008 during the construction of the 8-inches of lime stabilized subgrade. Due to the limited availability of both non-traditional stabilizers and select replacement material, and after extensive laboratory testing, these sulfate-rich subgrade soils were successfully stabilized with lime using alternative construction techniques. These alternative techniques included extended mellowing and additional pulverization of the stabilized subgrade. Performance monitoring was conducted on the SH 289 project in the Spring of 2010. Non-destructive test methods, such as inertial profiler, falling weight deflectometer (FWD), and dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) were utilized in order to evaluate the overall performance of the pavement. TxDOT assisted in the collection of the non-destructive test data. Additionally, lime treated subgrade samples were collected in order to perform follow-up sulfate testing approximately 14 months after stabilization was completed. With a satisfactory overall pavement performance, the results of this study indicate that the construction methods employed on this project provide a viable alternative to removal and replacement on projects with sulfate-rich soils.
  Authors: Hilbrich, Stacy L.; Scullion, Tom
  Authors: Hilbrich, Stacy L.; Scullion, Tom
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 694
  Paper Number: 13-4781
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Integrating National Database of Subgrade Soil-Water Characteristic Curves and Soil Index Properties with Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide
  Abstract: The database developed under the NCHRP 9-23A project, entitled "Development of a National Catalog of Subgrade Soil-Water Characteristic Curves (SWCC) Default Inputs to Use in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (M-EPDG)", included not only measured soil index properties needed in all hierarchical levels of the Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (EICM) but also soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) parameters, which are key in the implementation of Level 1 analysis. A set of maps in portable document format (pdf) displaying the location of every soil unit identified within the continental US, Hawaii, Alaska and Puerto Rico; and a simple interface in Excel to aid in the query of data were also developed for the project. Under NCHRP 9-23B project, entitled "Integrating the National Database of Subgrade Soil-Water Characteristic Curves and Soil Index Properties with the M-EPDG", a second research effort was directed to integrate an enhanced version of the GIS-enabled database with the M-EPDG. Specifically, NCHRP 9-23B project aimed at the implementation of an interactive tool that allows the M-EPDG (current DarWin-ME) users to retrieve both appropriate soil unit maps and soil properties relevant to a particular user-specified location by inputting either state milepost information or geographical coordinates. The final product was integrated into a public website that can be accessed by the guide users, agencies, industry and academicians through a simple link. This document presents details of the development of this useful search tool and outlines its main features.
  Authors: Zapata, Claudia E.; Cary, Carlos Ernesto
  Authors: Zapata, Claudia E.; Cary, Carlos Ernesto
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Pavements
  Session: 205
  Paper Number: 13-4809
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Improved Method to Evaluate the Pavement Structural Number Using FWD Deflections
  Abstract: Pavement structural number (SN) is used in various applications worldwide. One application is the structural condition index (SCI). SCI is developed for the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) to support maintenance and rehabilitation decisions at the network level. SCI is calculated as ratio of two SN values (effective SN/required SN). To evaluate the effective SN, a direct method of determining the SN from FWD testing has been used. This paper seeks to increase the SCI’s accuracy by improving the method of determining the effective SN from FWD deflection data. A new equation was developed by modifying the equation previously used, and new coefficients for four different flexible pavement types are presented. The new equation is improved by using a large database consisting of hypothetical pavement structures and responses, and by adding new variables to consider the depth to a rigid layer. This effort benefits not only TxDOT, allowing increased accuracy of SCI implementation, but also helps other agencies improve their evaluation of the SN by FWD deflection at the network level. In this study, only surface treated pavement and asphalt concrete pavement (ACP) were evaluated. Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement was not addressed.
  Authors: Kim, Moo Yeon; Kim, Dae Young; Murphy, Mike
  Authors: Kim, Moo Yeon; Kim, Dae Young; Murphy, Mike
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 809
  Paper Number: 13-4839
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Concrete Pavement Thickness Variation Assessment with Cores and Nondestructive Testing Measurements
  Abstract: Concrete pavement thickness data was collected from sections of 2 concrete pavements with a non-destructive testing (NDT) device and by measuring concrete core thickness. The NDT device allowed thickness measurements every 15 ft. compared to 1000 ft. for each core. Comparison of the core and NDT data showed that core thickness data does not capture the extreme peaks and valleys of pavement thickness variation. Further analysis of the core and NDT thickness data with the Minnesota Department of Transportation's concrete pavement thickness specifications highlighted that contractor pay deductions due to thickness deficiencies were not realized. Autocorrelation analysis of the data showed that concrete pavement thickness variation is not random, but is correlated to thicknesses of lag between 30-270 ft. This correlation lag is a starting point for answering the question, "how often must a thickness measurement be taken to accurately characterize the thickness variation of a concrete pavement."
  Authors: Vancura, Mary Elizabeth; Barnes, Randal; Khazanovich, Lev
  Authors: Vancura, Mary Elizabeth; Barnes, Randal; Khazanovich, Lev
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Construction; Pavements
  Session: 237
  Paper Number: 13-4910
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Comparison of Pavement Network Management Tools Based on Linear and Nonlinear Optimization Methods
  Abstract: Transportation officials at the state and local governments must make the best use of available budget to maintain the existing street network under the current budget environment. Mathematical optimization models can help to identify the optimal maintenance and rehabilitation strategy. This paper compares a linear versus a non-linear optimization model for pavement network management. Both models use the Markov transitional probabilities to represent pavement network deterioration, and both have been implemented as spreadsheet tools for use by municipalities. These tools allow users to estimate the minimum budget required to maintain a pavement network to achieve a desired network condition. For a given budget, the tools can be used to determine the budget allocation required to achieve the best network condition. The algorithms for both models are presented, and the results produced from the two models are compared.
  Authors: Gao, Lijun; Chou, Yein-Juin; Wang, Shuo
  Authors: Gao, Lijun; Chou, Yein-Juin; Wang, Shuo
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Pavements
  Session: 662
  Paper Number: 13-4953
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Soil Stiffness Assessment of Stabilized Pavement Foundations
  Abstract: The quality of constructed pavement foundation layers was studied using rapid and near-continuous soil stiffness measurements as alternatives to traditional nuclear gauge moisture/density measurements. Sixteen different stabilized pavement foundation sections covering 4.8 miles were studied with ground conditions ranging from soft to very stiff. Measurements from falling weight deflectometer, light weight deflectometer, and roller-integrated compaction monitoring systems were used to assess soil stiffness. Statistical analyses of the results are reported in the form of coefficient of variation and empirical correlations between measurements. Results of soil stiffness were compared to two independent groups of nuclear moisture/density measurements to demonstrate some of the shortcomings of traditional nuclear gauge testing for quality assessment. The findings from this paper show the value in characterizing ground variations using soil stiffness measurements. Cost data is also reported for the stabilized sections. (135 words)
  Authors: White, David J.; Becker, Peter; Vennapusa, Pavana Kumar Reddy; Dunn, Mark; White, Christianna
  Authors: White, David J.; Becker, Peter; Vennapusa, Pavana Kumar Reddy; Dunn, Mark; White, Christianna
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 564
  Paper Number: 13-5073
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Validating Spring Weight Restriction Limits on Low-Volume Roads in Manitoba Using Mechanistic-Empirical Failure Prediction Models
  Abstract: This study developed local mechanistic-empirical failure models to predict fatigue and rutting damage on spring weight restricted (SWR) roads in Manitoba. The local models were used to assess the SWR load limits and to validate the current SWR deflection levels that regulate commercial vehicle weights during the spring period. The local model predictions were compared to the Asphalt Institute and Mechanistic Empirical Design Guide (MEPDG) damage models. The results of the damage analysis are presented.
  Authors: Kavanagh, Leonnie N.
  Authors: Kavanagh, Leonnie N.
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Design; Maintenance and Preservation; Pavements
  Session: 240
  Paper Number: 13-5140
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Development of Optimum Fractionation Method for High-RAP Mixturesby Sieve-by-Sieve Analysis of RAP Materials
  Abstract: The main objective of this research is to examine the effects that different methods of RAP stockpile fractionation have on the volumetric mix design properties for high-RAP content surface mixes, with the goal of meeting all specified criteria for standard HMA mix designs. To determine the distribution of fine aggregates and binder in RAP stockpile, RAP materials were divided by each sieve size. The composition of RAP materials retained on each sieve was analyzed to determine the optimum fractionation method. Fractionation methods were designed to separate the stockpile at a specified sieve size to control the amount of fine RAP materials which contain higher amounts of fine aggregates and dust contents. These fine RAP materials were used in reduced proportions or completely eliminated, thereby decreasing the amount of fine aggregate materials introduced to the mix. Mix designs were performed using RAP materials from three different stockpiles and the two fractionated methods were used with high-RAP contents up to 40% by virgin binder replacement. By using an optimum fractionation method, a mix with 40% RAP was successfully designed while meeting all Superpave criteria and asphalt film thickness requirement by controlling the dust content from RAP stockpiles.
  Authors: Shannon, Cory; Lee, Hosin; Tang, Sheng; Williams, Ronald Christopher; Schram, Scott Alan
  Authors: Shannon, Cory; Lee, Hosin; Tang, Sheng; Williams, Ronald Christopher; Schram, Scott Alan
  Year: 2013
  Document Type: Paper
  Subject: Geotechnology; Materials; Pavements
  Session: 285
  Paper Number: 13-5098
  Practice-Ready: Yes
• Investigation of Premature Deterioration in Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement Sections in Pennsylvania
  Abstract: This paper presents the results of a detailed investigation performed on three sections of in-service jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCP) located across Pennsylvania. These pavement sections exhibited various types of distresses with different severities that developed prematurely. This shortened the pavement functional life and can result in additional maintenance and rehabilitation costs. The main distresses found in these three sections were jo